根據沉默螺旋理論，當人們認為自身意見屬於少數方時，會因為害怕遭受孤立而傾向保持沉默（Noelle-Neumann, 1977）。然而，隨著政治討論空間移往社群平台，個人所面臨的風險已不限於被孤立，更延伸至公開批評、嘲諷與人際衝突等具體負面後果。據此，本研究以社會制裁恐懼重新詮釋數位環境中的沉默機制，檢驗感知網絡多元性與感知網絡規模是否會提高使用者的社會制裁恐懼，進而減少其線上政治表達，以及政黨情感極化是否會調節社會制裁恐懼與線上政治表達之間的關係。
本研究採用網路問卷調查，招募對象為18歲以上且同時具有Facebook、Instagram與Threads個人帳號之社群媒體使用者。問卷發放時間為民國115年1月23日至2月4日，以網路便利抽樣的方式進行，共收回407份有效樣本。
研究結果發現：（1）感知網絡特性未能預測社會制裁恐懼以及線上政治表達；（2）社會制裁恐懼會削弱線上政治表達；（3）政黨情感極化的調節效果僅在「民眾黨－國民黨」這組的情感差距上成立，且主要出現在低度與中度的極化者身上。
整體而言，在線上政治討論中，真正抑制政治表達的原因未必是網絡環境本身，而是個人對表態後可能遭遇社會制裁的主觀預期。同時，政黨情感極化對政治表達的作用並非隨極化程度升高而線性增強。

According to the spiral of silence theory, individuals who perceive their opinions as being in the minority tend to remain silent due to fear of isolation (Noelle-Neumann, 1977). As political discussion has shifted to social media platforms, however, the risks of political expression have extended to more concrete negative consequences. Based on this view, this study reinterprets the mechanism of silence in digital environments through fear of social sanctions. It examines whether perceived network characteristics increase users’ fear of social sanctions and reduce their online political expression, and whether party affective polarization moderates the relationship between fear of social sanctions and online political expression.
Using an online survey, this study recruited social media users aged 18 and above who had personal accounts on Facebook, Instagram, and Threads. The survey was conducted from January 23 to February 4, 2026, through convenience sampling, yielding 407 valid responses.
The findings show that: (1) perceived network characteristics did not predict fear of social sanctions and online political expression; (2) fear of social sanctions reduced online political expression; and (3) the moderating effect occurs within the ‘TPP–KMT’, primarily among individuals with low and moderate levels of polarization.
Overall, what suppresses online political expression may not be the network environment, but rather individuals’ subjective expectations of the social sanctions. Also, the role of party affective polarization in political expression does not increase linearly as the level of polarization rises.

BBC News 中文（2025年6月11日）。〈台灣「大罷免潮」：朝小野大下的國會爭奪戰，藍綠惡鬥還是民主實現？〉。https://www.bbc.com/zhongwen/articles/c87jvj1j538o/trad
李弘繹、張佑宗（2022）。〈負面黨性與投票抉擇：2004-2020年臺灣總統選舉的分析〉，《選舉研究》，29(2)，35-71。https://doi.org/10.6612/tjes.202211_29(2).0002
周玫楓、左宗宏（2003）。〈以“沈默螺旋”理論探討2001年台北縣長選舉民對候先人認知與台灣前途的表達意願〉，《傳播與管理研究》，3(1)，69-100。https://doi.org/10.6430/CMR.200307.0069
林仕祥、謝采宜與羅卉昀（2025年8月20日）。〈「沉默多數」撼動選情！726罷免方贏了聲量，卻輸了選戰？〉，《遠見》。https://www.gvm.com.tw/article/123645
林淑芳（2018）。〈社群媒體與政治公民參與：網路政治討論頻率與政治討論異質性的中介角色〉，《傳播與社會學刊》，(44)，25-48。https://doi.org/10.30180/CS.201804_(44).0003
侯姿瑩（2025年7月27日）。〈大罷免未通過　美學者：政治兩極化危害國安朝野需妥協〉，《中央社》。https://www.cna.com.tw/news/aipl/202507270016.aspx
陳憶寧、溫嘉禾（2020）。〈台灣臉書使用者的隱私行為研究：劍橋分析事件之後〉，《傳播與社會學刊》，(54)，27-57。https://doi.org/10.30180/CS.202010_(54).0003
施怡妏（2025年8月19日）。〈拿藍營「不同意罷免扇搧風」24萬YTR被出征！他退訂：當我玻璃心吧〉，《ETtoday新聞雲》。
https://www.ettoday.net/news/20250819/3018134.htm
翁履中（2025年7月9日）。〈翁履中專欄：罷免之後　台灣需要雙方都有服輸的勇氣〉，《鏡報》。
https://www.mirrordaily.news/story/9437
曾子庭（2025年7月28日）。〈表態大罷免立場「遭酸要飯的、爛鳥」莊凱勛回擊：凸顯自己無知〉，《鏡新聞》。https://www.mnews.tw/story/20250728nm005
報導者（2024年1月16日）。〈35張圖表，帶你看2024大選關鍵結果〉。https://www.twreporter.org/a/2024-election-results-chart
楊竣傑（2024年12月19日）。〈立法院選罷法、財劃法、憲法訴訟法吵什麼？藍白不同調，如何影響你我〉，《天下雜誌》。https://www.cw.com.tw/article/5133188
楊琇雯、蒙志成（2025）。〈探索臺灣民眾的政黨偏好態度：內隱聯結測驗的分析〉，《調查研究-方法與應用》，(54)，1-43。https://doi.org/10.7014/SRMA.2025040002
蕭怡靖（2019）。〈台灣民衆的黨性極化及其對民主態度的影響〉，《台灣政治學刊》，23(2)，41-85。https://doi.org/10.6683/TPSR.201912_23(2).0002
蕭怡靖、林聰吉（2013）。〈台灣政治極化之初探：測量與分析，黃紀編《台灣選舉與民主化調查(TEDS)方法論之回顧與前瞻》，頁90-133。五南。
Abou-Chadi, T. (2025, September 14). Threats to social status and support for far-right political parties. Washington Center for Equitable Growth. https://equitablegrowth.org/threats-to-social-status-&-support-for-far-right-political-parties/
Aldous, K. K., An, J., & Jansen, B. J. (2019, July). View, like, comment, post: Analyzing user engagement by topic at 4 levels across 5 social media platforms for 53 news organizations. Proceedings of the International AAAI Conference on Web and Social Media, 13, 47–57.
Anwar, S., & Giglietto, F. (2024). Facebook reactions in the context of politics and social issues: a systematic literature review. Frontiers in Sociology, 9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsoc.2024.1379265
Arceneaux, K., & Vander Wielen, R. J. (2013). The effects of need for cognition and need for affect on partisan evaluations. Political Psychology, 34(1), 23-42. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9221.2012.00925.x
Associated Press. (2025, September 18). What We’ve Learned about the Case against the Man Charged in Charlie Kirk’s Killing.
https://apnews.com/article/charlie-kirk-shooting-suspect-things-to-know-dcde3f792f4d6636d44fb9f4fa53569c
Bäck, E. A., Bäck, H., Fredén, A., & Gustafsson, N. (2019). A social safety net? Rejection sensitivity and political opinion sharing among young people in social media. New Media & Society, 21(2), 298-316.
Bagozzi, R. P., & Yi, Y. (1988). On the evaluation of structural equation models. Journal of the academy of marketing science, 16(1), 74-94.
Bentler, P. M. (1990). Comparative fit indexes in structural models. Psychological bulletin, 107(2), 238.
Borah, P. (2022). The moderating role of political ideology: Need for cognition, media locus of control, misinformation efficacy, and misperceptions about COVID-19. International Journal of Communication, 16, 26-26.
Boxell, L., Gentzkow, M., & Shapiro, J. M. (2024). Cross-country trends in affective polarization. Review of Economics and Statistics, 106(2), 557-565. https://doi.org/10.1162/rest_a_01160
Browne, M. W., & Cudeck, R. (1993). Alternative ways of assessing model fit. In K. A. Bollen and J. S. Long (Eds.), Testing structural equation models (pp. 136–162). Sage Publications, Inc.
Burnett, A., Knighton, D., & Wilson, C. (2022). The Self-Censoring Majority: How Political Identity and Ideology Impacts Willingness to Self-Censor and Fear of Isolation in the United States. Social Media + Society, 8(3), https://doi.org/10.1177/20563051221123031
Cabrera, B., Ross, B., Röchert, D., Brünker, F., & Stieglitz, S. (2021). The influence of community structure on opinion expression: an agent-based model. Journal of Business Economics, 91(9), 1331-1355. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11573-021-01064-7
Cacioppo, J. T., & Petty, R. E. (1982). The need for cognition. Journal of personality and social psychology, 42(1), 116–131.
Cacioppo, J. T., Petty, R. E., & Kao, C. F. (1984). The efficient assessment of need for cognition. Journal of personality assessment, 48(3), 306-307.
Chan, M. (2018). Reluctance to Talk About Politics in Face-to-Face and Facebook Settings: Examining the Impact of Fear of Isolation, Willingness to Self-Censor, and Peer Network Characteristics. Mass Communication and Society, 21(1), 1-23. https://doi.org/10.1080/15205436.2017.1358819
Chaudhry, I., & Gruzd, A. (2020). Expressing and Challenging Racist Discourse on Facebook: How Social Media Weaken the “Spiral of Silence” Theory. Policy & Internet, 12(1), 88-108. https://doi.org/10.1002/poi3.197
Chen, H. T. (2018). Spiral of silence on social media and the moderating role of disagreement and publicness in the network: Analyzing expressive and withdrawal behaviors. New Media & Society, 20(10), 3917-3936. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444818763384
Chen, H. T., Kim, Y., & Chan, M. (2022). Just a glance, or more? Pathways from counter-attitudinal incidental exposure to attitude (de) polarization through response behaviors and cognitive elaboration. Journal of Communication, 72(1), 83-110. https://doi.org/10.1093/joc/jqab046
Cheong, H. J., Baksh, S. M., & Ju, I. (2022). Spiral of silence in an algorithm-driven social media content environment: Conceptual framework and research propositions. Kome, 10(1), 32-46.
Cho, J., Ahmed, S., Keum, H., Choi, Y. J., & Lee, J. H. (2018). Influencing Myself: Self-Reinforcement Through Online Political Expression. Communication Research, 45(1), 83-111. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650216644020
Chun, J. W., & Lee, M. J. (2017). When does individuals’ willingness to speak out increase on social media? Perceived social support and perceived power/control. Computers in Human Behavior, 74, 120-129. 10.1016/j.chb.2017.04.010
Druckman, J. N., Klar, S., Krupnikov, Y., Levendusky, M., & Ryan, J. B. (2020). Affective polarization, local contexts and public opinion in America. Nature Human Behaviour, 5(1), 28-38. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-020-01012-5
Druckman, J. N., & Levendusky, M. S. (2019). WHAT DO WE MEASURE WHEN WE MEASURE AFFECTIVE POLARIZATION. Public Opinion Quarterly, 83(1), 114-122. https://doi.org/10.1093/poq/nfz003
Duncan, M., Pelled, A., Wise, D., Ghosh, S., Shan, Y., Zheng, M., & McLeod, D. (2020). Staying silent and speaking out in online comment sections: The influence of spiral of silence and corrective action in reaction to news. Computers in Human Behavior, 102, 192-205. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2019.08.026
Esau, K. (2025). The Quality of Connections: Deliberative Reciprocity and Inclusive Listening as Antidote to Destructive Polarization Online. Social Media+ Society, 11(2), 20563051251332421. https://doi.org/10.1177/20563051251332421
Finkel, E. J., Bail, C. A., Cikara, M., Ditto, P. H., Iyengar, S., Klar, S., Mason, L., McGrath, M. C., Nyhan, B., Rand, D. G., Skitka, L. J., Tucker, J. A., Van Bavel, J. J., Wang, C. S., & Druckman, J. N. (2020). Political sectarianism in America. Science, 370(6516), 533-536. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abe1715
Fox, J., & Holt, L. F. (2018). Fear of Isolation and Perceived Affordances: The Spiral of Silence on Social Networking Sites Regarding Police Discrimination. Mass Communication & Society, 21(5), 533-554. https://doi.org/10.1080/15205436.2018.1442480
Garzia, D., & Ferreira Da Silva, F. (2025). In-Party Love, Out-Party Hate, and Affective Polarization in Twelve Established Democracies. Public Opinion Quarterly, 89(2), 459-467. https://doi.org/10.1093/poq/nfaf013
Garzia, D., Ferreira Da Silva, F., & Maye, S. (2023). Affective Polarization in Comparative and Longitudinal Perspective. Public Opinion Quarterly, 87(1), 219-231. https://doi.org/10.1093/poq/nfad004
Gearhart, S., & Adegbola, O. (2025). Spiral of silence and social conflict. In S. A. Samoilenko & S. Simmons (Eds.), The handbook of social and political conflict (pp. 141–150). Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119895534.ch13
Graham, S. (2024, May 5). A candidate for Germany’s key party was beaten up while campaigning for European elections. The Associated Press. https://apnews.com/article/germany-europe-election-matthias-ecke-78eec937352dc4de1c3c8bc6e58e3be7
Haim, M., Kümpel, A. S., & Brosius, H.-B. (2018). Popularity cues in online media: A review of conceptualizations, operationalizations, and general effects. Studies in Communication Media, 7(2), 186-207.
https://doi.org/10.5771/2192-4007-2018-2-58
Halim, H., Mohamad, B., Dauda, S. A., Azizan, F. L., & Akanmu, M. D. (2021). Association of online political participation with social media usage, perceived information quality, political interest and political knowledge among Malaysian youth: Structural equation model analysis. Cogent Social Sciences, 7(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/23311886.2021.1964186
Halversen, A., & Weeks, B. E. (2023). Memeing politics: Understanding political meme creators, audiences and consequences on social media. Social Media+ Society, 9(4). https://doi.org/10.1177/20563051231205588
Hampton, K. N., Shin, I., & Lu, W. (2017). Social media and political discussion: when online presence silences offline conversation. Information, Communication & Society, 20(7), 1090-1107. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2016.1218526
Harteveld, E., & Wagner, M. (2023). Does affective polarisation increase turnout? Evidence from Germany, The Netherlands and Spain. West European Politics, 46(4), 732-759. https://doi.org/10.1080/01402382.2022.2087395
Haug, M., Maier, C., Gewald, H., & Weitzel, T. (2025). Supporting opinions to fit in: a spiral of silence-theoretic explanation for establishing echo chambers and filter bubbles on social media. Internet Research, 35(7), 30-51. https://doi.org/10.1108/INTR-03-2024-0413
Hayes, A. F. (2007). Exploring the forms of self-censorship: On the spiral of silence and the use of opinion expression avoidance strategies. Journal of Communication, 57(4), 785-802. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2007.00368.x
Ho, Y., & Huang, Y. Breaking the spiral of silence. (2024). Harvard University. https://sites.harvard.edu/yihong-huang/job-market-paper/
Hoffmann, C. P., & Lutz, C. (2017, July). Spiral of silence 2.0: Political self-censorship among young Facebook users. In Proceedings of the 8th international conference on social media & society (pp. 1-12). Association for Computing Machinery. https://doi.org/10.1145/3097286.3097296
Hoffmann, C. P., & Lutz, C. (2023). The contextual role of privacy concerns in online political participation. European Journal of Communication, 38(4), 363-379. https://doi.org/10.1177/02673231221139040
Hu, L. T., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural equation modeling: a multidisciplinary journal, 6(1), 1-55.
Iyengar, S., & Krupenkin, M. (2018). The strengthening of partisan affect. Political Psychology, 39, 201-218. https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12487
Iyengar, S., Lelkes, Y., Levendusky, M., Malhotra, N., & Westwood, S. J. (2019). The Origins and Consequences of Affective Polarization in the United States. Annual Review of Political Science, 22(1), 129-146. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-polisci-051117-073034
Iyengar, S., Sood, G., & Lelkes, Y. (2012). Affect, Not Ideology. Public Opinion Quarterly, 76(3), 405-431. https://doi.org/10.1093/poq/nfs038
Iyengar, S., & Westwood, S. J. (2015). Fear and loathing across party lines: New evidence on group polarization. American Journal of Political Science, 59(3), 690-707. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajps.12152
Jang, S. M., Lee, H., & Park, Y. J. (2014). The more friends, the less political talk? Predictors of Facebook discussions among college students. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 17(5), 271-275. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2013.0477
Jost, J. T., Baldassarri, D. S., & Druckman, J. N. (2022). Cognitive–motivational mechanisms of political polarization in social-communicative contexts. Nature Reviews Psychology, 1(10), 560-576. https://doi.org/10.1038/s44159-022-00093-5
Keating, A., & Melis, G. (2017). Social media and youth political engagement: Preaching to the converted or providing a new voice for youth? The British Journal of Politics & International Relations, 19(4), 877-894. https://doi.org/10.1177/1369148117718461
Kelm, O., Dohle, M., Friess, D., Vowe, G., & Ziegele, M. (2024). Which Perceived Opinion Climates Influence the Participation in Online Political Discussions? Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 68(4), 519-537. https://doi.org/10.1080/08838151.2024.2361113
Kim, C., & Yang, S. U. (2017). Like, comment, and share on Facebook: How each behavior differs from the other. Public relations review, 43(2), 441-449. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pubrev.2017.02.006
Kim, E.-M., & Ihm, J. (2020). Online News Sharing in the Face of Mixed Audiences: Context Collapse, Homophily, and Types of Social Media. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 64(5), 756-776. https://doi.org/10.1080/08838151.2020.1835429
Kingzette, J., Druckman, J. N., Klar, S., Krupnikov, Y., Levendusky, M., & Ryan, J. B. (2021). How Affective Polarization Undermines Support for Democratic Norms. Public Opinion Quarterly, 85(2), 663-677. https://doi.org/10.1093/poq/nfab029
Kirby, P. (2024, July 5). Fifty Violent Attacks Shock France Ahead of Crunch Vote. BBC. https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c4ngxeyxd9go
Kline, R. B. (2016). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (4th ed.). Guilford Press.
Kushin, M. J., Yamamoto, M., & Dalisay, F. (2019). Societal Majority, Facebook, and the Spiral of Silence in the 2016 US Presidential Election. Social Media + Society, 5(2), 205630511985513. https://doi.org/10.1177/2056305119855139
Landry, A. P., & Halperin, E. (2025). Intergroup psychological interventions: The motivational challenge. American Psychologist, 80(2), 206-219. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0001289
Lane, D. S., Do, K., & Molina-Rogers, N. (2021). What is political expression on social media anyway?: A systematic review. Journal of Information Technology & Politics, 19(3), 331-345. https://doi.org/10.1080/19331681.2021.1985031
Lane, D. S., Lee, S. S., Liang, F., Kim, D. H., Shen, L., Weeks, B. E., & Kwak, N. (2019). Social Media Expression and the Political Self. Journal of Communication, 69(1), 49-72. https://doi.org/10.1093/joc/jqy064
Laor, T. (2024). Breaking the silence: the role of social media in fostering community and challenging the spiral of silence. Online Information Review, 48(4), 710-724. https://doi.org/10.1108/oir-06-2023-0273
Lelkes, Y. (2016). Mass Polarization: Manifestations and Measurements. Public Opinion Quarterly, 80(S1), 392-410. https://doi.org/10.1093/poq/nfw005
Leong, A. D., & Ho, S. S. (2021). Perceiving online public opinion: The impact of Facebook opinion cues, opinion climate congruency, and source credibility on speaking out. New media & society, 23(9), 2495-2515.
Levenson, E. (2025, September 12). Charlie Kirk’s Final Hours: How a Stage for Debate Became a Scene of Tragedy. CNN. https://edition.cnn.com/2025/09/12/us/charlie-kirk-shooting-death-final-hours
Li, Y., Cheng, Z., & Gil De Zúñiga, H. (2025). TikTok’s political landscape: Examining echo chambers and political expression dynamics. New Media & Society. https://doi.org/10.1177/14614448251339755
Lin, W. K., & Pfau, M. (2007). Can Inoculation Work Against the Spiral of Silence? A Study of Public Opinion on the Future of Taiwan. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 19(2), 155-172. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijpor/edl030
Loecherbach, F., Moeller, J., Trilling, D., & Van Atteveldt, W. (2020). The Unified Framework of Media Diversity: A Systematic Literature Review. Digital Journalism, 8(5), 605-642. https://doi.org/10.1080/21670811.2020.1764374
Marchal, N. (2022). “Be Nice or Leave Me Alone”: An Intergroup Perspective on Affective Polarization in Online Political Discussions. Communication Research, 49(3), 376-398. https://doi.org/10.1177/00936502211042516
Mason, L. (2015). “I disrespectfully agree”: The differential effects of partisan sorting on social and issue polarization. American Journal of Political Science, 59(1), 128-145. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajps.12089
Masullo, G. M., & Duchovnay, M. (2022). Extending the Spiral of Silence: Theorizing a Typology of Political Self-Silencing. Communication Studies, 73(5-6), 607-622. https://doi.org/10.1080/10510974.2022.2129401
Masullo, G. M., Lu, S., & Fadnis, D. (2021). Does online incivility cancel out the spiral of silence? A moderated mediation model of willingness to speak out. New media & society, 23(11), 3391-3414. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444820954194
Matthes, J. (2015). Observing the "Spiral" in the Spiral of Silence. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 27(2), 155-176. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijpor/edu032
Matthes, J., Knoll, J., & Von Sikorski, C. (2018). The “spiral of silence” revisited: A meta-analysis on the relationship between perceptions of opinion support and political opinion expression. Communication Research, 45(1), 3-33. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650217745429
McCoy, J., & Somer, M. (2021). Overcoming polarization. Journal of Democracy, 32(1), 6-21. https://dx.doi.org/10.1353/jod.2021.0012.
Mesch, G., & Talmud, I. (2006). The Quality of Online and Offline Relationships: The Role of Multiplexity and Duration of Social Relationships. The Information Society, 22(3), 137-148. https://doi.org/10.1080/01972240600677805
Milan, S. (2015). Mobilizing in times of social media. From a politics of identity to a politics of visibility. In L. Dencik & O. Leistert (Eds.), Critical perspectives on social media and protest (pp. 53–71). Rowman & Littlefield.
Milli, S., Carroll, M., Wang, Y., Pandey, S., Zhao, S., & Dragan, A. D. (2025). Engagement, user satisfaction, and the amplification of divisive content on social media. PNAS Nexus, 4(3), pgaf062. https://doi.org/10.1093/pnasnexus/pgaf062
Monge, C. K., Matthews, N. L., & Deandrea, D. C. (2024). The persistence of toxic online messages influences perceptions of harm and attributions of blame. Journal of Communication, 74(5), 399-409. https://doi.org/10.1093/joc/jqae024
Morozov, E. (2009). The brave new world of slacktivism. Foreign policy, 19(05).
Moy, P., Domke, D., & Stamm, K. (2001). The spiral of silence and public opinion on affirmative action. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 78(1), 7-25. https://doi.org/10.1177/107769900107800102
Neubaum, G., & Krämer, N. C. (2018). What do we fear? Expected sanctions for expressing minority opinions in offline and online communication. Communication Research, 45(2), 139-164. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650215623837
Neubaum, G., & Weeks, B. (2023). Computer-mediated political expression: A conceptual framework of technological affordances and individual tradeoffs. Journal of Information Technology & Politics, 20(1), 19-33. https://doi.org/10.1080/19331681.2022.2028694
Neuwirth, K., Frederick, E., & Mayo, C. (2007). The Spiral of Silence and Fear of Isolation. Journal of Communication, 57(3), 450-468. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2007.00352.x
Noelle-Neumann, E. (1974). The spiral of silence a theory of public opinion. Journal of Communication, 24(2), 43-51. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.1974.tb00367.x
Noelle-Neumann, E. (1977). Turbulences in the climate of opinion: Methodological applications of the spiral of silence theory. Public Opinion Quarterly, 41(2), 143-158. https://doi.org/10.1086/268371
Noelle-Neumann, E. (1991). The theory of public opinion: The concept of the spiral of silence. Annals of the International Communication Association, 14(1), 256-287. https://doi.org/10.1080/23808985.1991.11678790
Noelle-Neumann, E. (1993). The spiral of silence: Public opinion--Our social skin. University of Chicago Press.
Orhan, Y. E. (2022). The relationship between affective polarization and democratic backsliding: comparative evidence. Democratization, 29(4), 714-735. https://doi.org/10.1080/13510347.2021.2008912
Oser, J., Grinson, A., Boulianne, S., & Halperin, E. (2022). How Political Efficacy Relates to Online and Offline Political Participation: A Multilevel Meta-analysis. Political communication, 39(5), 607-633. https://doi.org/10.1080/10584609.2022.2086329
Opzoomer, I. (2020, September 25). America Speaks: What Do They Think about Cross-Party Marriages? YouGov. https://today.yougov.com/society/articles/32171-america-speaks-what-do-they-think-about-cross-part
Oz, M., & Cetindere, E. N. O. (2023). Perceived social sanctions and deindividuation: understanding the silencing process on social media platforms. International Journal of Communication, 17, 22-22.
Parviz, E., & Piercy, C. W. (2021). What will they think if I post this? Risks and returns for political expression across platforms. Social Media+ Society, 7(4), 20563051211055439. https://doi.org/10.1177/20563051211055439
Pew Research Center. (2022, August 9). As Partisan Hostility Grows, Signs of Frustration With the Two-Party System. https://www.pewresearch.org/politics/2022/08/09/as-partisan-hostility-grows-signs-of-frustration-with-the-two-party-system/
Pierson, P., & Schickler, E. (2020). Madison's Constitution Under Stress: A Developmental Analysis of Political Polarization. Annual Review of Political Science, 23(1), 37-58. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-polisci-050718-033629
Rashidi, Y., Kapadia, A., Nippert-Eng, C., & Su, N. M. (2020). " It's easier than causing confrontation": sanctioning strategies to maintain social norms and privacy on social media. Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction, 4(CSCW1), 1-25. https://doi.org/10.1145/3392827
Rathje, S., Van Bavel, J. J., & Van Der Linden, S. (2021). Out-group animosity drives engagement on social media. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 118(26), e2024292118. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2024292118
Reiljan, A. (2020). ‘Fear and loathing across party lines’ (also) in Europe: Affective polarisation in European party systems. European Journal of Political Research, 59(2), 376-396. https://doi.org/10.1111/1475-6765.12351
Rojas, H., & Puig-I-Abril, E. (2009). Mobilizers Mobilized: Information, Expression, Mobilization and Participation in the Digital Age. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 14(4), 902-927. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1083-6101.2009.01475.x
Ross, B., Pilz, L., Cabrera, B., Brachten, F., Neubaum, G., & Stieglitz, S. (2019). Are social bots a real threat? An agent-based model of the spiral of silence to analyse the impact of manipulative actors in social networks. European Journal of Information Systems, 28(4), 394-412. https://doi.org/10.1080/0960085x.2018.1560920
Saint-Louis, H. (2021). Understanding cancel culture: Normative and unequal sanctioning. Firstmonday, 26(7). http://dx.doi.org/doi:10.5210/fm.v26i7.10891
Santoro, E., & Broockman, D. E. (2022). The promise and pitfalls of cross-partisan conversations for reducing affective polarization: Evidence from randomized experiments. Science Advances, 8(25), eabn5515. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abn5515
Scheufele, D. A., & Moy, P. (2000). TWENTY-FIVE YEARS OF THE SPIRAL OF SILENCE: A CONCEPTUAL REVIEW and EMPIRICAL OUTLOOK. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 12(1), 3-28. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijpor/12.1.3
Shin, D.-I., Lim, Y.-W., & Kwahk, K.-Y. (2022). SNS users' opinion expression: Focusing on suppression effect in spiral of silence. Telematics & Informatics, 72, 101859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tele.2022.101859
Thorson, K. (2014). Facing an uncertain reception: Young citizens and political interaction on Facebook. In Loader, B. D., Vromen, A., & Xenos, M. (Eds.), The Networked Young Citizen (pp. 86-103). Routledge.
Vaccari, C., & Valeriani, A. (2018). Digital political talk and political participation: Comparing established and third wave democracies. Sage Open, 8(2), 2158244018784986. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244018784986
Van Bavel, J. J., & Pereira, A. (2018). The Partisan Brain: An Identity-Based Model of Political Belief. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 22(3), 213-224. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2018.01.004
Velasquez, A., & Rojas, H. (2017). Political Expression on Social Media: The Role of Communication Competence and Expected Outcomes. Social Media + Society, 3(1), 205630511769652. https://doi.org/10.1177/2056305117696521
Vitak, J., Lampe, C., Gray, R., & Ellison, N. B. (2012). " Why won't you be my Facebook friend?" strategies for managing context collapse in the workplace. In Proceedings of the 2012 iConference (pp. 555-557).
Voelkel, J. G., Stagnaro, M. N., Chu, J. Y., Pink, S. L., Mernyk, J. S., Redekopp, C., Ghezae, I., Cashman, M., Adjodah, D., Allen, L. G., Allis, L. V., Baleria, G., Ballantyne, N., Van Bavel, J. J., Blunden, H., Braley, A., Bryan, C. J., Celniker, J. B., Cikara, M., . . . Willer, R. (2024). Megastudy testing 25 treatments to reduce antidemocratic attitudes and partisan animosity. Science, 386(6719). https://doi.org/10.1126/science.adh4764
Wagner, M. (2021). Affective polarization in multiparty systems. Electoral Studies, 69, 102199. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2020.102199
Wang, J., & Sundar, S. S. (2022). Liking versus commenting on online news: Effects of expression affordances on political attitudes. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 27(6), https://doi.org/10.1093/jcmc/zmac018
Ward, D. G., & Tavits, M. (2019). How partisan affect shapes citizens' perception of the political world. Electoral Studies, 60, 102045. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2019.04.009
Weeks, B. E., Halversen, A., & Neubaum, G. (2023). Too scared to share? Fear of social sanctions for political expression on social media. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 29(1). https://doi.org/10.1093/jcmc/zmad041
Wu, T.-Y., & Atkin, D. J. (2018). To comment or not to comment: Examining the influences of anonymity and social support on one’s willingness to express in online news discussions. New Media & Society, 20(12), 4512-4532. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444818776629
Wu, T.-Y., & Atkin, D. J. (2018). To comment or not to comment: Examining the influences of anonymity and social support on one’s willingness to express in online news discussions. New Media & Society, 20(12), 4512-4532. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444818776629
Yu, E. C.-h. (2016). Partisanship and public opinion. In Chu, Y.-h., Diamond, L., & Templeman, K. (Eds.), Taiwan’s democracy challenged: The Chen Shui-bian years, (pp. 73-94). Lynne Rienner Pub.
Zhang, X. (2023). Will political disagreement silence political expression? The role of information repertoire filtration and discussion network heterogeneity. Human Communication Research, 49(2), 139-148. https://doi.org/10.1093/hcr/hqad009