論文提要內容

本研究的主要目的在探討(一)年級、性別與學業成敗歸因的關係。(二)年級、性別與人際親和成敗歸因的關係。(三)自我統整與學業成敗歸因的關係及此種關係是否因年級、性別之不同而不同。(四)自我統整與人際親和成敗歸因的關係及此種關係是否因年級、性別之不同而不同。

本研究以台北市高中生398名(男200，女198)及大學生347名(男156，女191)，全體樣本數總計745名。

本研究所使用的工具包括歸因量表及自我統整量表。歸因量表是根據Lefcourt et a1.(1979)的多向度歸因量表修定而成，包括學業成敗歸因量表及人際親和成敗歸因量表。學業成敗歸因量表經因素分析後可得8個因素(成功-能力，成功-努力，成功-環境，成功-運氣，失敗-能力，失敗-努力，失敗-環境，失敗-運氣歸因),綜合能力、努力歸因得分可得內控向度，綜合環境和運氣歸因得分可得外控向度，綜合能力和環境歸因得分可得穩定向度，綜合努力和運氣歸因可得不穩定向度。人際親和成敗歸因於因素分析後可得7個因素(能力，努力，成功-努力，成功-外在因素，失敗-努力，失敗-環境，失敗-運氣歸因)。自我統整量表經測量結果後可得自主定向、他主定向、尋求方向、迷失方向、轉變階段等5種類型。

本研究的獨變項為年級(高二，大三)、性別及自我統整(包含5種類型)，依變項為學業成員文歸因及人際親和成敗歸因。統計方法是以學業成敗歸因內容、內外控向度及穩定－不穩定向度和人際親和成敗歸因做4次多變項變異數分析，然後依研究結果進行單變項變異數分析、多重比較及t考驗。

研究發現:

(一)就年級、性別與學業成敗歸因的關係發現，高中生比大學生易將學業成功歸因於努力的結果，而較不會歸因於環境因素所致，學業失敗了則較會歸因於不夠努力或能力不好，而較不會歸因於環境及運氣因素;女生比男生易將學業成功歸因於運氣好。學業失敗了則比較會歸因於自己能力不好，而較不會歸因於環境因素。在內外控向度及審定不穩定向度上之歸因，因年級、性別者而有顯著的差異。

(二)就年級、性別與人際親和成敗歸因的關係發現:在人際親和能力歸因，努力歸因及失敗不夠努力歸因傾向上，高中生高於大學生，高中女生高於大學女生，大學男生又大於大學女生。在人際親和失敗不夠努力歸因傾向上高中女生高於高中男生。

(三)就自我統整與學業成敗歸因的關係發現:自主定向者比轉變階段者易將學業成功歸因於能力;自主定向者比尋求方向者易將學業成功歸因於努力因素;自主定向者比他主定向者易將學業失敗歸因於不夠努力;尋求方向者及他主定向者比自主定向者易將學業成功歸因於運氣;尋求方向者、他主定向者、轉變階段者皆比迷失方向者易將學業成功歸因於運氣。不同自我統整程度者在學業成功內在歸因及外在歸因和學業成功不穩定因素歸因上均有顯著的差異。

(四)就自我統整與人際親和成敗歸因的關係發現:自主定向者比迷失方向者易將人際親和之成功歸因於努力的結果;他主定向者比自主定向者易將人際親和之成功歸因於外在因素所致;轉變階段者比尋求方向者易將人際親和之成敗歸因於能力因素且轉變階段者比迷失方向者易將人際親和之失敗歸因於運氣不好。

最後並根據研究的結果和討論，提出對教育及未來研究的建議，以供參考。

參考書目
一、中文部份
王大延(民73),國小學童歸因方式與學業成就關係之研究，師大教育研究所碩士論文。
朱進財(民76)，師專學生自我統整的相關因素及成長團體訓練效果之研究，政大教育研究所博士論文。
江南發(民71)，青少年自我統整與形式運思能力關係之研究。高雄師範學院教育研究所碩士論文。
洪光遠，楊國樞(民68),「歸因特質的測量與研究」。民族研究所集刊，第48期，頁89-154。
何英奇(民74)，我國次文化及其相關因素之研究，師大教育研究所博士論文。
吳靜吉，余嬪(民74)，大學生自我認同之研究。未發表報告。
吳鐵雄(民71)，「青少年男女學生社會認知與歸因方式之關係」，師大教育心理學報，第15期，149-166。
林邦傑(民68),「國中學生的歸因特質與生活適應」。中華心理學刊，第21卷，第2期，頁61-74。
林邦傑(民73),「讚許欲與人格特質、青少年犯罪之關係」，政大教育心理研究，第7期，頁1-18。
林清財(民73)，青少年自我統整與心理特質關係之研究。政大教育研究所碩士論文。
洪碧霞(民72)，「國中學生歸因方式及其相關因素之探討」，新竹師專學報，第9期，頁95-132。
張長芳(民71)，「大一學生的人際關係與自我關念及歸因特質的關係」。政大教育與心理研究，第5期，頁1-46。
張春興(民71)，心理學，台北:東華書局。
張春興(民73)，成長中的自我探索。台北:東華書局。
張春興，黃淑芬(民71),「大學教育環境與青年期自我統整形成關係的初步研究」。師大教育心理學報，第15期，頁31-46。
張郁雯(民75)，我國大學生心理社會發展與心理健康之相關研究，台大心理所碩士論文。
許錫珍，蘇建文，邱連煌(民68),「兒童制握信念，與父母制握信念以及社經水準的關係」。測驗年刊，第26輯，頁37-46。
莊耀嘉，黃光國(民70),「國中學生的成敗歸因與無助感的特徵」。中華心理學刊，第23卷，頁155-164。
郭生玉(民73),「國小學生成敗歸因與學業成就，成就動機及成敗預期關係之研究」。師大教育心理學報，第17期，頁51-72。
陳李綢(民72),「大專男女生自我統整程度與職業選擇，學習滿意度及父母養育方式之比較研究」。師大教育心理學報，第16期，頁89-98。
黃淑芬(民71)，大學生自我統整與職業成熟及自我確認的關係。師大輔導研究所碩士論文。
黃慧貞，黃光圈，柯永河(民72),「生活壓力、歸因組型、社會支援與大學生憂鬱症」，中華心理學刊，第25卷一期，頁31-47。
黃堅厚(民68),「國小及國中學生內外控信念之研究」。師大教育心理學報，第12期，頁1-14。
曾慧敏(民74)，自我統整、性別、角色與Erikson心理社會發展關係之研究。政大教育研究所碩士論文。
湯梅英(民71)，犯罪少年與一般少年自我統整及生活適應之研究。政大教育研究所碩士論文。
楊瑞珠，楊國樞(民65)，「兒童內外控的先決及後果變項」。中華心理學刊，第18期，頁105-120。
楊國樞，歐真妮(民69),「問題行為少年對成功與失敗的心理反應」。中華心理學刊，第21期，49-59。
鄭慧玲，楊國樞(民66)，「成就歸因歷程對成就動機與學業成就的影響」。民族研究所集刊，第43期，頁35-127。

二、英文部份
Abramson, L.Y., Seligman, M.E.P. & Teasdale, J. (1978) Learned helplessness in humans: Critigue and reformulation. Journal of Abnormal Psychology,87, 49-74.
Adams, G.R., & Shea, J.A. (1979) The relationship between identity status, locus of control, and ego development. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, Vol.8, No.1 81-89.
Adams, G.R., Shea, J., & Fitch, S.A. (1979) Toward the development of an objective assessment of ego identity status. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, Vol.8, No.2, 223-237.
Ames, Carole, Ames, Russel & Felker, Donald (1976) Informational and dispositional determinants of children's achievement attributions. Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol. 68,No.1,63-69.
Ames, Russell, Ames, Carde & Garrison, Wayne (1977) Children's causal ascriptions for positive and negative interpersonal outcomes. Psychological Reports, 41 , 595-602.
Ames, Carol & Felker, D.W. (1979) Effects of self-concept on children's causal attvibutions and Self-reinforcement. Journal of Educational Psycholorg, 71,613-619.
Anderson. C.A. (1983) The causal structure of situations: The generation of plausible causal attributions as a function of type of event situation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 19, 185-203.
Andrews, G.R., & Debus, R.L. (1978) Persistence and causal perceptions of failure: Modifying Cognitive attributions. Journal of Educational Psychology,70, 154-166.
Barker, George Peter(1985) The influence of teacher evaluation feedback on students' ability perceptions of others. Dissertation Abstracts International,Vol.46, No. 01, July, 103-A.
Bar-Tal, D. (1978) Attributional analysis of achievement- related behavior. Review of Educational Research, 48, 259-271.
Bar-Tal, D. (1982) The effect of teacher's behavior and pupils' attributions: a review. In C. Antak & C. Breisin (Eds.) Attributions and Psychological Change. London: Academic Press.
Bar-Tal, D. (1985) Attribution theory of human development. Encyclopedia of Education, Vol.1, 358-364.
Bar-Tal, D and Frieze, I.H. (1977) Achievement motivation for male and female as a determinant of attribution for success and failure. Journal of sex Role, 3, 301-313.
Baum, Naomi Loewenberg (1983) Causal attribution in the classroom: A developmental study.Dissertation Abstracts International, Vol.44,No.05, November, 1635-B.
Bern, D.J. (1972) Self-perception theory. In Berkowiz (Ed.) Advances in Experimental Social Psychology.(Vol.6). New York: Academic Press.
Betancourt, H. (1983). Causal Attributions, Empathy, and Emotions as Determinants of Helping Behavior;An Integrative Approach. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles.
Bourne, E. (1978 a) The state of research on ego identity: a review and appraisal. Part I.Journal of Youth and Adolescence, Vol. 7, No.3, 223-251.
Bourne, E. (1978 b) The state of research on ego identity: a review and appraisal. Part II.
Journal of Youth and Adolescence, Vol.7, No.4, 371-392,
Brophy, J.E. & Rohrkemper, M.M.(1981 ). The influence of problem ownership teachers perceptions of and strategies for coping with problem students. Journal of Educational Psychology, 73, 295-311.
Brown, J., & Weiner, B. (1984). Affective Consequences of ability versus effort ascriptions: Controversies,resolutions, and quandaries. Journal of Educational Psychology, 76, 146-158.
Callaghan, Carol & Manstead, A. S.R. (1983) Causal attributions for task performance: the effects of performance outcome and sex of subject. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 53 ,14-23.
Carroll, J.S. & Payne, J.W. (1976). The psychology of the parole decision process: A joint application of attrbution theory and information processing psychology. In J.S. Carroll & J.W. Payne (Eds.) Cognition and Social Behavior, (PP.13-32).Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Carrol, J.S. & Payne, J.W. (1977) Judgements about crime and the criminal: A model and a method for investigating parole decision. In B.D. Sales(Ed.) Prospective in Law and Psychology: Vol.1, The Criminal Justice System. (PP.191-240). New York: Plenum Press.
Chaikin, A. C. ( 1971) The effects of four outcome schedules on persistence, liking for the task,and attribution of causality. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39, 512-526.
Chandler, Theodore A, Shama, Deborah D. & Wolf,Fredric M. (1983) Gender differences in achievement and affiliation attributions: A five-nation study. Journal of Cross-Culture
Psychology, Vol.14, No.2 June, 241-256.
Chaney, Lee A. & Bugental, Dephne B. (1982) An attributional approach to hyperactive behavior,211-226. In Charles Antaki & Chris Brewin (Eds.) Attributions and Psychological Change. New York:Academic press.
Chapin, M., & Dych, D.G. (1976). Persistence in children's reading behavior as a function of N length and attribution retraining.Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 85, 511-515.
Clifford, Margaret M. (1986) The comparative effects of strategy and effort attribution.
British Journal of Educational Psychology, 56,75-83 .
Craig, G.J. (1976) Human Development. N.J.: Prentice-Hall.
Crandall, V.J. (1963) Achievement. In H.W. Sterenson (Ed.) Child Psychology. Chicago:
National Society for the Study of Education.
Crandall, V.C., Katkovsky, w. & Crandall, V.J. (1965) Children's beliefs in their control of
reinforcements in intellectual academic achievement situation. Child Development,36, 91-109.
Crandall, V.J., Dewey, R., Katkovsky, W., & Preston,A, & Preston, A. (1964) Parents' attitudes and behavior and grade school children's academic achievements. Journal of Genetic Psychology,104,53- 66.
Crittended. K.S. & Wiley, M.G. (1980). Causal attributions and behavioral reponse to failure.Social Psychology Quarterly, 43, 353-358.
Cross, J.H. and Allen, J.G. (1970) Ego identity status, adjustment, and academic achievement.Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology,34, 288.
Covington, M.V. & Omelich, C.L. (1984). An empirical examination of Weiner's critique of attribution research. Journal of Educational Psychology,76, 1199-1213.
Damon, William (1983) Social and Personality Development. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc.
Deaux, Kay & Emswiller, Tim(1974) Explaination of successful performance on sex-linked tasks: What is skill for the male is luck for the female. Jounal of Personality and Social Psychology,Vol.29, No.1, 80-85.
Deaux , K & Farris, E. (1977) Attributing causes for one's own performance: The effect of sex, norms,and outcomes. Journal of Research in Personality,11,59-72.
Diener, C.I. a nd Dweck, C.A. (1978) An analysis of learned helplessness: Continuous changes in performance, strategy and achievement cognitions following failure . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36, 451-462.
Dweck, C.S. (1975). The role of expectations and attributions in the alleviation of learned
helplessne ss. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 31, 674-685.
Dweck., C.S. & Goetz T.E. (1978) Attributions and learned helplessness. In J.H. Harvey, W. Ickes, & R.F. Kidd (Eds.), New Directions in Attribution Research (Vol.2). Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Erikson, E.H. (1963) Childhood and Society. 2nd ed ., New York: Norton.
Erikson, E.H. (1968) Identity: Youth and Crisis. New York: Norton.
Erikson, E.H. (1980) Identity and the Life Cycle. 2nd ed ., New York: Norton.
Falbo, T. (1975). The achievement motivations of kindergarteners. Developmental Psychology,11, 529-530.
Feather , N.T. (1969) Attribution of responsibility and valence of success and failure in relation to initial confidence and task performance.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,13, 129-144.
Feather, N.T., & Simon, G.J. (1971) Causal attributions for success based on selective
or manipulative control. Journal of Personality ,39, 527-541.
Fitch, G. (1970) Effects of self-esteem, perceived performance, and choice on causal attributions.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,16,311-315.
Folkes, V.S. (1982) Communicating the reasons for social rejection. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 18, 235-252.
Folkes, V.S. (1984) Consumer reactions to product failure: An attributional approach. Journal of Consumer Research, 11, 398-409.
Friend, R.M. and Neale, J.M. (1972) Children's perceptions of success and failure. An attributional analysis of the effects of race and social class. Developmental Psychology, 7, 24-128.
Frieze, I. and Snyder, H.N. (1980) Children's beliefs about the causes of success and failure in school settings. Journal of Educational Psychology 72,186-196.
Frieze, I. and Weiner, B. (1971) Cue utilization and attributional judgment's for success and failure.Journal of Personality 39, 591-606.
Fyans, L.J. and Waehr, M.L.(1979) Attributional style, task selection, and achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 71, 499-507.
Gallatin, J.E. (1975) Adolescence and Individuality. New York: Harper & Publisher.
Ginsburg, S.D., & Orlofsky, J.L. (1981) Ego identity status, ego development and locus of control in college women. Journal of Youth and Adolescence,Vol. 10, No.4, 297-307.
Goldsmith, Dlane Bardford (1981) Dissertation Abstracts International Vol. 41, No.11, May, 4631-A.
Coranson, R.E. & Berkowitz, L. (1966). Reciprocity and responsibility reactions to prior help.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,3, 227-232.
Greenhouse, E.M. (1975) The Relationship Between Identity Status and Several Aspects of
Heterosexual Relationships in College Women. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Columbia University.
Grotevant, H.D., & Thorbecke, W.L. (1982) Sex differences in styles of occupational identity formation in late adolescence. Developmental Psychology, Vol.18, No.3, 396-405.
Grotevant, H.D., Thorbecke, W., & Meyer, M.L. (1982) An extension of Marcia's identity status interview into the interpersonal domain.Journal of Youth and Adolescence, Vol.11,
No.1, 33-47.
Harari, O. & Covington, M.V. (1981) Reactions to achievement behavior behavior from a teacher and student perspective: A developmental analysis. American Educational Research Journal, 18,15-28.
Harvey, H. H., & Weary, G. (1981 ). Perspectives on Attributional Processes. Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown.
Harvey, J.H, & Weary, G. (1984) Current issues in attribution theory and research. Annual Review of Psychology, 35, 427-459.
Heider, F. (1958). The Psychology of Interpersonal Relations. New York: Wiley.
Hiebert, Elfrieda H. & Danner, Fred W. (1984) Children's attributions for failure and success in different aspect of reading. Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol.76, No.6, 1139-1148.
Hoffiman, M.L.(1982). Development of prosocial motivation: Empathy and guilt. In N. Eisenberg-Borg (Ed.), Development of prosocial behavior.(PP.281-313).New York: Academic Press.
House, W.C. (1976) Effect of locus of control. expectancy confirmation-disconfirmation and type of goal and causal attribution of failure. Journal of Research in Personality, 10, 279-292.
Howard, M.R. (1975) Ego Identity Status in Women, Fear of Success, and Performance in a Competitive ituation.Unpublished doctoral dissertation, State University of New York at uffalo.
Ickes, W. & Layden, M.A. (1978) Attributional Styles In J.H. Harvey, W. Ickes & R.F. kidd (Eds.) New Directions in Attribution Research, (Vol.2) .Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawerence Erlbaum Associates.
Jones, E.E. & Davis, K.E. (1965) Fromacts to dispositions: The attribution process in person perception. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.) Advances in Experiment Social Psychology. New York:Academic Press.
Jones, E.E. & Nisbett, R.E. (1972) The actor and observer. In E.E. Jones, D.E. Kanouse, H.H. Kelley,R.E. Nisbett, S. Valins and B. Weiner (Eds.) Attribution: Perceiving the of Causes of behavior.New Jersey: General Learning Press.
Kelley, H.H. (1967) Attribution theory in social Psychology. In Levine (Ed.) Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, Lincoln, Neb.: University of Nebraska Press, 192-238.
Kelley, H.H. (1972) Causal Schemata and the Attribution Process.Morristown, N.J.: General Learning Press
Kelley, H.H. (1978) A conversation with Edward E. Jones and Harold H. Kelley, In J.H. Harvey et al. (Eds.) New Directions in Attribution Research (Vol.2) Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum.
Kelley, H.H. & Michela, J.L. (1980) Attribution theory and research. Annual Review of Psychology, 31,457-501.
Kukla, A. (1972 ). Attributional determinants of achievement-related behavior. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 21, 166-174.
Lau, R.R. & Russell, D. (1980) Attributions in the sports pages: A field test of some current hypotheses in attribution research. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39,29-38.
Lefcourt, H.M., Hogg, E., Struthers, S. & Holmes,C. (1975) Causal attributions as a function of locus of coutrol, initial confidence, and performance outcomes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 32, 391-397.
Lefcourt, H.M., Von Baeyev, C.L., Ware, E.E. & Cox,d.J. ( 1979) The multidimensional-multiattributional Causality Scale: The development of a goal
specific locus of control scale. Candian Journal of Behavior Science, 11, 286-304.
Lepper, M.R. & Defoe, J. (1979) Incentives,constraints, and motivation in the classroom: An attributional analysis. In I.H. Frieze, D. Bar-Tal & J.S. Carrol, (Eds.). Approaches to Social Problem: Application of Attributional Theory,Jossey-Bass, San Franciso, California.
Luginbuhl, J.E.R., Crowe, D.H. & Kahan, J.P. (1975) Causal attributions for success and failure.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,31, 86-93.
Maier, H.W. (1978) Three Theories of Child Development.New York: Harper & Row, Pub.
Marcia, J.E. (1966) Development and validation of ego identity Status. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 3, No.5, 551-558.
Marcia, J.E. (1980) Identity in adolescence. In Adelson, J. Handbook of Adolescent psychology.New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 159-187.
Marcia, J.E. & Friedman, M.L. (1970) Ego identity status in college women. Journal of Personality,38(2), 249-263.
Marsh, Herbert W. (1984) Relations among dimensions of self-attribution, dimensions of self-concept,and academic achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol.76, No.6, 1291-1308.
Marsh, Herbert W, Cairns, Len, Relich, Joseph, Barnes,Jennifer & Debus, Rayl. 1984) The relationship between dimension of self-attribution and dimension of self-concept. Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol.76, No.1 3-32.
Matteson, Dr. (1977) Exploration and commitment: sex difference and methodological problem in the use of identity status categories. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 1977, Vol.6, No.4, 353-474.
McArthur, L.A. (1972) The how and what of why:Some determinants and consequences of causal attribution. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 22, 171-193.
McGinnies, E., Nordholm, L., Ward, C. & Bhanthumnavin,D. (1974) Sex and culture differenes in perceived locus of control among students in five countries.Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology,42, 451-455.
McMahan, I.D. (1973). Relationships between causal attributions and expectancy of success.Journal of personality and Social Psychology,28, 108-115.
Miller, D.T. (1976) Ego involvement and attribution for success and failure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 34, 901-906.
Murray, S.R. and Mednick, T.S. (1975) Perceiving the causes of success and failure in achievement: Sex race and motivation. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 43, 881-885.
Newman, Barbara M. & Newman, Philip R. (1983) Understanding Adulthood. New York: Holt ,Reinehart & Winston.
Nichollas, J.G. (1975) Causal attributions and other achievement-related cognitions: Effects of task outcome, attainment value and sex. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 31, 379-389.
Nicholls, J.G. (1978) The development of the concepts of effort and ability, perception of academic achievement attainment, and the understanding that difficult tasks require more ability. Child Development, 49, 800-814.
Olson, James M. & Ross, Michael (1985) Attribution research: past contributions, current trends, and future prospects. In John H. Harvey & Gifford Weary(Eds.) Attribution: Basic Issues and Applications. London: Academic Press.
Orlofsky, J.L., Marcia, J.E., and Lesser, I.M. (1973) Ego identity status and the intimacy vs. isolation crisis of young adulthood. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol.27, No.2. 211-219.
Orlofsky, J.L. (1978) Identity formation,achievement, and fear of success in college men
and women. Journal of Youth and Adolescence,Vol. 7, No.1, 49-62.
Parsons, J.E. & Ruble, D.N. (1977) The development of achievement-related expectancies.
Child Development, 48, 1075-1079.
Parsons, O.A. and Schneider, J.M. (1974) Locus of control in university students from eastern and western societies. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 42, 456-461.
Penk, W.E. (1969) Age changes and correlates of internal external locus of control scale.
Psychological Reports, 25, 856.
Petri, Herbert L. (1981) Motivation: Theory and Research. Belmont, California: Wadsworth Publishing Company.
Powers, Stephen, Douglas, peggy & Choroszy, Melisa(1983a) The factorial validity of the
multidemsional-multiattributional causality scale. Educational and Psychological
Measurement, 43, 611-615.
Powers, Stephen & Rossman, Mark H. (1983b) The reliability and c6nstruct validity of the
multidemsional-multiattributional causality scale. Educational and Psychological
Measurement, 43,1227-1231.
Powers, Stephen & Rossman, Mark H. (1984) Attributions for school achievement of lowachieving Indian and Caucasian community College Student.Psychological Reports, 55,
423-428.
Prawat, R.S., Jones, H., & Hampton, J. (1979) Longitudinal study of attitude development in pre-,early, and later adolescence samples. Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol.71, No.3, 363-369.
Prociuk, T.J., & Breen, L.J. (1975) Defensive externality and its relation to academic
performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 31, 549-556.
Raphael, D. (1977) Identity status in university women: a methodological note. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, Vol.6, No.1, 57-61.
Raths, G.M. (1978) Values clarification for counselors Springfield, Ill: Charles c. Tomas, Press.
Raviv, A., Bar-Tal, D., Raviv, A. & Bar-Tal Y. (1980) Causal perceptions of success and failure by advantaged, integrated, and disadvantaged pupils. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 50,136-146.
Raviv, A., Bar-Tal, D., Raviv, Alona & Levit, Ruth(1983) Research symposium: Attribution theory students' reactions to attribution of abilility and effort. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 53, 1-13.
Rogers, L.G. (1980) The development of sex difference in evaluations of others' success and failure. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 50,243-252.
Rosemfield, D. & Stephan, W.G. (1978) Sex differences in attributions for sex typed tasks.
Journal of Personality, 1978, 46, 244-259.
Rosenholtz, Susan J. and Simpson, Carl (1984) The formation of ability conceptions: Developmental trend or social construction? Review of Educational Research, Vol.54, No.1,31-63.
Ruble, D.J., Parsons, J.E. & Ross, J. (1976) Self-evaluation responses of children in an
achievement setting.Child Development, 47,990-997.
Salili, F., Maehr, M.C., and Gillmore, G. (1976) Achievement and movality: a cross-culture analysis of causal attribution and evaluation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,33, 327-337.
Saulnier, K. , & Pearlman, D. (1981 ). The actor-observer bias is alive and well in prison: A sequel to Wells. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,7, 559-564.
Schunk, Dale H. (1982) Effects of effort attributional feedback on children's perceived self-efficacy and achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology,Vol.74, No. 4 , 548-566.
Schunk , Dale H.(1983) Ability Versus effort attributional feedback: Differential effects on self-efficacy and achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 75 , 848 - 856.
Schunk, Dale H.(198 5 ) Self-efficacy and classroom learning. Psychology in the Schools, 22, 208-223.
Schunk, Dale H. & Cox , Paula D. (1986 ) Strategy training and attributional feedback with learning disabled students. Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol.7 8 , No. 3 , 201 -209 .
Seligman, M. E. P . (1975 ) Helplessness : On Depression, Development, and Death. San
Francisco: Freeman.
Selignan, M.E. P., & Maies, S . F . (1 967 ) Failure to escape traumatic shock. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 74, 1-9.
Shaver, K.G. (1977) Principles of Social Psychology. Canbridge: Massachusetts, Winthrop.
Simon, J.G. & Feather, N. (1973) Causal attributions for success and failure at university
examinations. Journal of Educational Psychology,64, 46-56.
Stephan, Walter G., Rosenfield, David & Stephan, Cookies (1976) Egotism in male and female.Journal of personality and Social Psychology,Vol.34, No.6 1161-1167.
Stipek, D.J. (1981) Children's perceptions of their own and their classmates' ability. Journal of Educational Psychology, 73, 404-410.
Stipek, Deborach J. & Hoffman, Joel M. (1980) Children's achievement-related expectancies as a function of academic performance history and sex. Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol.72, No.6,861-865.
Stipek, D.J. & Weisz, J.R. (1981) Perceived personal control and academic achievement. Review of Educational Research, 51, 101-137.
Tesser, A., Gatewood, R., & Driver, M. (1968). Some determinants of gratitude. Journal of Personality and Social psychology, 3, 233-236.
Triandis, H. (1972) The Analysis of Subjective Culture. New York: Wiley-Interscience.
Waterman, A.S. and Waterman, C.K. (1970) The relationship between ego identity status and satisfaction with college. Journal of Educational Research, Vol.14, No.4,165-168.
Waterman, A.S. and Waterman, C.K. (1971) A longitudinal study of changes in ego identity status during the freshman year at college. Developmental Psychology, 5, 167-173.
Waterman, C.K., Buebel, M.E., and Waterman, A.S. (1970) The relationship between resolution of the identity crisis and outcomes of previous psychosocial crises. Proceedings of the 78th Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, 5, 467-468. (Summary)
Waterman, C.K., & Nevid, J.S. (1977) Sex differences in the resolution of the identity crisis. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, Vol.6, 337-342.
Weiner, B. (1972) Attribution theory, achievement motivation, and the educational process. Review of Educational Research, 42, 203-215.
Weiner, B. (1974). Achievement Motivation and Attribution Theory. Morristown N.J.: General Learning Press.
Weiner, B. (1979). A theory of motivation for some classroom experiences. Journal of Educational Psychology. 71, 3-25.
Weiner, B. (1980 a) A cognitive (attribution)-emotion-action model of motivated behavior: An analysis of judgements of help-giving. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39, 186-200.
Weiner, B. (1980 b) May I borrow your class notes? An attributional analysis of judgements of help giving in an achievement related context. Journal of Educational Psychology, 72, 676-681.
Weiner, B. (1982) The emotional consequences of cusal ascriptions In M.S. Cark & S.T. Fiske (Eds.) Affect and Cognition: The 17th Annual Carnegie Symposium on Cognition. Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum.
Weiner, B. (1983). Some methodological pitfalls in attributional research. Journal of Educational Psychology, 75, 530-543.
Weiner, B. (1985) An attributional theory of achievement motivation and emotion.
Psychological Review, Vol.92, No.4, 548-573.
Weiner, B., Amirkhan, J., Folkes, V.S., & Wachtel. S. (1985) An Attributional Analysis of Excuses: Studies of a Naive Psychology of Emotion, Unpublished paper. University of California, Los Angeles.
Weiner, B., Frieze, I.H. Kukla, A., Reed, L., Rest. S., Rosenbaum, R.M. (1971 ). Perceiving the Causes of Success and Failure. Morristown, NJ: General Learning Press.
Weiner, B., Heckhausen, H., Meyer, W.U.& Cook, R.E. (1972) Causal ascriptions and achievement motivation: An attributional analysis of effort and reanalysis of locus of control. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 21, 239-248.
Weiner, B., & Kukla, A. (1970). An attributional analysis of achievement motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 15, 1-20.
Weiner, B., Nierenberg, R., & Goldstein, M. (1976).Social learning (locus of control) versus attributional (causal stability) interpretations of expectancy of success. Journal of Personality,44, 52-68.
Weiner, B. and Peter , N. (1973) A cognitive developmental analysis of achievement and
moral judgements. Developmental Psychology, 9,290-309.
Whalen, C.K. & Benker, B.(1976 ) Psychostimulants and children: A review and analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 83, 1113-1130.
Wicker, F.W . Payne , G. C., & Morgan, R.D. (1983).Participant descriptions of guilt and shame.Motivation and Emoton, 7, 25-39.
Wi lliam, J. Mark G. (1983) Expectancy value : A model of how attributions affect educational attainment. In Charles Antak, & Chris Brewin (Eds.) Attributions and Psycholgical Change. London:Academic Press.
Wilson, T.D. & Linville, P.W. (1982). Improving the academic performance of college freshmen:Attribution theory revisited. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 42, 367-376.
Wilson, T.D. & Linville, P.W. (1985) Improving the performance of college freshmen with attributional techniques . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 49, 287-293.
Wolf , Fredric M. & Savi ckas, Mark L. (1985) Time perspective and causal attribution for achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol.77, No.4, 471-480.
Wolk , S. , & Kurtz, J. ( 1975) Positive adjustment and involuement during aging and expectancy or internal control. Journal of consulting and clinical psychology,Vol.43, No.2, 173-178.
Wong, P.T.P., Weiner, B.(1981) When people ask why questions and the heuristics of attributional search. Journal of Personatity and Social Psychology, 40 , 650- 663 .