本研究旨在探討近代中國反基督教宗教之社會運動的歷史脈絡，並分析其背後的集體受害者情結與極權思想形成機制。自清末至民國初期，反基督教運動不僅呈現宗教衝突的特徵，更與民族主義情緒、排外心理及地方權力結構密切相關。本文將對近代中國的四輪反基督教浪潮——清末教案與庚子拳亂、民國早期非基督教運動、共產主義革命興起期間的暴力反教，以及戰後對教會的系統化整肅——進行觀察和分析；特別關注第三輪，即共產主義革命初期（約1930–1940年代）針對基督宗教的暴力行動。本文透過分析教案史料、傳教士回憶錄、外交檔案與國際媒體報導，揭示了共產革命如何利用宗教與文化衝突外殼，操作民眾情緒、強化集體焦慮，進而促成排外情緒與忠誠建構。經過對相關史料的整理分析，本研究將呈現反基督教行動在不同歷史階段中如何被反覆用作情緒動員與思想控制的工具，而集體受害者情結又如何成為延續甚至強化中國傳統式極權思想的心理基礎。本文的分析不僅補充了民國初期反教運動與共產革命暴力之間的歷史連續性，也為理解中國近代民族主義、排外心理與極權文化之間的互動關係提供新的角度和理論解讀。

This study investigates the historical context of anti-Christian movements in modern China and analyzes the mechanisms through which a collective victimhood mentality and totalitarian ideology were constructed and sustained. From the late Qing dynasty through the early Republican period, anti-Christian movements were not merely expressions of religious conflict; they were deeply intertwined with nationalism, xenophobia, and local power structures.
This article examines four major waves of anti-Christian mobilization in modern Chinese history: (1) late Qing missionary incidents and the Boxer Uprising, (2) the Anti-Christian Movement of the early Republic, (3) violent anti-Christian campaigns during the rise of the Communist revolution, and (4) the systematic suppression of churches in the postwar era. Particular attention is given to the third wave -- violent actions against Christianity during the early phase of the Communist revolution (approximately the 1930s - 1940s).
Drawing on missionary memoirs, judicial and diplomatic archives, and reports from international media, this study demonstrates how the Communist revolution appropriated religious and cultural conflict as a framework for emotional mobilization. Through the manipulation of popular sentiment and the amplification of collective anxiety, anti-Christian violence functioned as a mechanism for fostering xenophobia and constructing political loyalty.
The findings reveal that anti-Christian campaigns across different historical stages repeatedly served as tools of emotional mobilization and ideological control, while the collective victimhood mentality became a psychological foundation for the persistence and intensification of a traditional form of totalitarian thought. This analysis highlights the historical continuity between early Republican anti-Christian movements and revolutionary violence, and offers a new interpretive perspective on the interaction among modern Chinese nationalism, xenophobic psychology, and totalitarian political culture.

英文資料
Newspapers and Periodicals
China’s Millions
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The Chinese Recorder
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“Foreign News, China: Looting of Changsha,” TIME (New York), 11 August 1930, 28.
West, Charles C. “Christianity in Communist North China,” Christianity and Crisis (13 October 1947): online. https://providencemag.com/2022/10/christianity-in-communist-north-china/. Visited on May 23, 2025.
“Ho Lung the Noted Communist General Captures Missionary in Szechwan,” West China Missionary News 36, no.7-8 (July & August 1934):13-18.
Boynton, C. L. “VI Necrology 1930-35,” The China Mission Year Book, no.19 (1935): 435, 440.
“The Church in the Tribes Country,” West China Missionary News 38, no.4 (April 1936): 5-14.
Archives and Collections
“Letter from CIM North America Home Director to the Stam Family in Paterson, New Jersey a month after the Stams’ death,” Wheaton College, Evangelism & Missions Archives, CN499, Box 1, Folder 5. Available at https://fromthevault.wheaton.edu/2019/12/03/stam-baby-safe-remembering-john-and-betty-stam/
Books and Publications
“Chapter XXI - Religious,” in The China Year Book, ed. by H. G. W. Woodhead, (Peking: The North-China Daily News & Herald Ltd., 1936): 339-364.
Acemoglu, Daron, and James A. Robinson. Why Nations Fail: The Origins of Power, Prosperity, and Poverty, 1st ed. New York: Crown Business, 2012.
Anderson, Benedict. Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism, reversed ed. New York: Verso, 2006.
Baycroft, Timothy. Nationalism in Europe, 1789-1945. Cambridge Perspectives in History. Cambridge University Press, 1998.
Becker, Jasper. Hungry Ghosts: Mao’s Secret Famine, 1st Holt paperbacks ed. New York: Holt, 1998.
Becker, Jasper. Why Communism Failed, La Vergne: Hurst Publishers, 2022.
Bickers, Robert A. Out of China: How the Chinese Ended the Era of Western Domination, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2017.
Bickers, Robert A. Missionary Encounters: Sources and Issues. ed. Rosemary Seton. Richmond: Curzon Press, 1996.
Blackbourn, David. The Long Nineteenth Century: A History of Germany, 1780-1918, New York: Oxford University Press, 1998.
Blackbourn, David, and Geoff Eley. The Peculiarities of German History: Bourgeois Society and Politics in Nineteenth-Century Germany, Oxford & New York: Oxford University Press, 1984.
Blakiston, Thomas Wright. Five Months on the Yang-Tsze: With a Narrative of the Exploration of Its Upper Waters and Notices of the Present Rebellions in China. 1st ed. Cambridge University Press, 1862.
Bodin, Lynn E., and Christopher Warner. The Boxer Rebellion. Men-at-Arms Series 95. Osprey, 1979.
Bosshardt, Rudolf Alfred, Gwen England, and Edward England. The Guiding Hand: Captivity and Answered Prayer in China, London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1973.
Brady, Anne-Marie. “An Introduction,” in Arnolis Hayman, A Foreign Missionary on the Long March: The Memoirs of Arnolis Hayman of the China Inland Mission, Pennsylvania: MerwinAsia, 2010.
Brown, Archie. The Rise and Fall of Communism, HarperCollins e-books, 2009.
Bush, Charles Peck, and William Aitchison. The Martyr Missionary or, Five Years in China. Cambridge, England: W. P. Nimmo, 1867.
Butterfield, Fox. “A Missionary View of the Chinese Communists (1936-1939),” in American Missionaries in China, ed. Kwang-Ching Liu. Harvard University Asia Center, 1970.
Callahan, William A. China: The Pessoptimist Nation, Oxford University Press, 2010.
Chambers, Iain, and Lidia Curti, eds. The Post-Colonial Question: Common Skies, Divided Horizons, Routledge, 1996.
Chen, Yung-fa. Making Revolution: The Communist Movement in Eastern and Central China, 1937-1945. 1st ed. Center for Chinese Studies, UC Berkeley 26: University of California Press, 1986.
Christian Education in China: A Study Made by an Educational Commission Representing the Mission Boards and Societies Conducting Work in China, Committee of Reference and Counsel of the Foreign Missions Conference of North America, Inc., 1922.
Cohen, Paul A. A Path Twice Traveled: My Journey as a Historian of China. 1st ed. Harvard University Fairbank Center, 2019.
Cohen, Paul A. China and Christianity: The Missionary Movement and the Growth of Chinese Antiforeignism, 1860-1870. 3rd ed. Harvard East Asian Series 11. Harvard University Press, 1977.
Cohen, Paul A. China Unbound: Evolving Perspectives on the Chinese Past, Critical Asian Scholarship. New York & London: Routledge Curzon, 2003.
Cohen, Paul A. Discovering History in China: American Historical Writing on the Recent Chinese Past, Studies of the East Asian Institute. New York: Columbia University Press, 1984.
Cohen, Paul A. History and Popular Memory: The Power of Story in Moments of Crisis, New York: Columbia University Press, 2014.
Cohen, Paul A. History in Three Keys: The Boxers as Event, Experience, and Myth, New York: Columbia University Press, 1997.
Dikötter, Frank. The Age of Openness: China Before Mao, Understanding China, Hong Kong University Press, 2008.
Dikötter, Frank. The Tragedy of Liberation: A History of the Chinese Revolution, 1945-1957, London: Bloomsbury, 2013.
Donovan, John F., and Francis Xavier Ford. The Pagoda and the Cross: The Life of Bishop Ford of Maryknoll, New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1967.
Einstein, Albert. The Travel Diaries of Albert Einstein: The Far East, Palestine & Spain, 1922-1923. ed. Ze’ev Rosenkranz. Princeton University Press, 2018.
Engstrom, Theodore W. An Hour with John and Betty Stam: Martyred Missionaries to China, Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan Publishing House, 1943.
Esherick, Joseph. The Origins of the Boxer Uprising, University of California Press, 1987.
Fairbank, John King, and Kwang-Ching Liu, eds. The Cambridge History of China. 1st ed. Cambridge University Press, 1980.
Fairbank, John King, ed. The Chinese World Order: Traditional China’s Foreign Relations, Harvard East Asian Series 32. Harvard University Press, 1968.
Fan, Hong, and Jörn-Carsten Gottwald. The Irish Asia Strategy and Its China Relations. 1st ed. Aufl. Europäischer Hochschulverlag, 2014.
Ferris, Helen Josephine. The Christian Church in Communist China, to 1952. Human Resources Research Institute (U.S.). Research Memorandum; No.45. Air Force Personnel and Training Research Center, 1956.
Fischer, Edward. Maybe A Second Spring: The Story of The Missionary Sisters of St. Columban in China, New York: Crossroad Publishing Company, 1983.
Fitzgerald, John. Awakening China: Politics, Culture and Class in the Nationalist Revolution, 1st ed. Stanford University Press, 1999.
Fletcher, Jesse C. Bill Wallace of China, Nashville, TN: Broadman & Holman, 1996.
Fogel, Joshua A., and Peter Gue Zarrow, eds. Imagining the People: Chinese Intellectuals and the Concept of Citizenship, 1890-1920, London: Routledge, 2015.
Forristal, Desmond. The Bridge at Lo Wu: A Life of Sister Eamonn O’Sullivan. Veritas Publications, 1987.
Galter, Albert. The Red Book of the Persecuted Church, The Newman Press, 1957.
Gasster, Michael. “The Republican Revolutionary Movement,” in The Cambridge History of China, 1st ed., ed. John K. Fairbank and Kwang-Ching Liu. Cambridge University Press, 1980.
Gershaneck, Kerry K. Political Warfare: Strategies for Combating China’s Plan to “Win without Fighting”, Marine Corps University Press, 2020.
Glover, Archibald E. A Thousand Miles of Miracle in China: A Personal Record of God’s Delivering Power from the Hands of the Imperial Boxers of Shan-Si, London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1904.
Grieder, Jerome B. Hu Shih and the Chinese Renaissance: Liberalism in the Chinese Revolution, 1917-1937, Harvard East Asian Series 46. Harvard University Press, 1970.
Hamilton, Evelyn Harrison. I Am Not Afraid!: The Story of John W. Vinson, Christian Martyr in China, Board of World Missions, PCUS, 1936.
Harrington, Peter. Peking 1900: The Boxer Rebellion, Osprey Military, 2001.
Harrison, Henrietta. The Missionary’s Curse and Other Tales from a Chinese Catholic Village, University of California Press, 2013.
Hattaway, Paul. China’s Book of Martyrs, The “fire & Blood” Series 1, Carlisle: Piquant Editions Ltd., 2007.
Hattaway, Paul. China’s Christian Martyrs, Oxford: Monarch books, 2008.
Hayek, Friedrich A. von. The Road to Serfdom, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1976.
Hayman, Arnolis. A Foreign Missionary on the Long March: The Memoirs of Arnolis Hayman of the China Inland Mission, edited by Anne-Marie Brady. Portland, ME: MerwinAsia, 2010.
Hefley, James C., and Marti Hefley. By Their Blood: Christian Martyrs from the Twentieth Century and Beyond, 3rd ed. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books, 2004.
Hefley, James C., and Marti Hefley. The Secret File on John Birch, reversed and updated. Hannibal, MO: Hannibal Books, 1995.
Hinton, William. Fanshen: A Documentary of Revolution in a Chinese Village, New York: Monthly Review Press, 1967.
Huang, Grace C. Chiang Kai-Shek’s Politics of Shame: Leadership, Legacy, and National Identity in China, Harvard University Asia Center, 2021.
Hung, Chang-tai. Mao’s New World: Political Culture in the Early People’s Republic, Cornell University Press, 2011.
Hung, Chang-tai. Politics of Control: Creating Red Culture in the Early People’s Republic of China, University of Hawai’i Press, 2021.
Hunter, Edward. The Story of Mary Liu, London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1956.
Jager, Sheila Miyoshi, and Rana Mitter, eds. Ruptured Histories: War, Memory, and the Post-Cold War in Asia, Harvard University Press, 2007.
Kedourie, Elie, ed. Nationalism in Asia and Africa, The New American Library Inc., 1970.
Langellier, John P. Uncle Sam’s Little Wars: The Spanish-American War, Philippine Insurrection, and Boxer Rebellion, 1898-1902, The G.I. Series, London: Greenhill Books & Stackpole Books, 1999.
Latourette, Kenneth Scott. A History of Christian Missions in China, Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias Press, 2009.
Lautz, Terry E. John Birch: A Life, Oxford University Press, 2016.
Levenson, Joseph Richmond. Liang Ch’i Ch’ao and The Mind of Modern China, University of California Press, 1959.
Liu, Kwang-Ching, ed. American Missionaries in China: Papers from Harvard Seminars. 1st ed. Harvard University Asia Center, 1966.
Lodwick, Kathleen L. How Christianity Came to China: A Brief History, Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2016.
Loewenberg, Peter. Decoding the Past: The Psychohistorical Approach, New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 1996.
Loewenberg, Peter. Fantasy and Reality in History, Oxford University Press, 1995.
Lyall, Leslie Theodore. A Passion for the Impossible: the China Inland Mission 1865-1965. 1st ed. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1965.
Maestrini, Nicholas. My Twenty Years with the Chinese: Laughter and Tears, 1931-1951. 2nd ed. Avon, NJ: Magnificat Press, 1990.
Maslow, Abraham H. A Theory of Human Motivation, Lanham: Start Publishing LLC, 2013.
Mason, Mary Gertrude. Western Concepts of China and the Chinese, 1840-1876, Columbia University Press, 1939.
Meadows. The Chinese and Their Rebellions: Viewed in Connection with Their National Philosophy, Ethics, Legislation, and Administration, Cambridge University Press, 2015.
Meisner, Maurice J. Mao’s China and After: A History of the People’s Republic, 3rd ed. New York: Free Press, 1999.
Miller, Frederic P., and Agnes F. Vandome. Left Communism: Communism, Bolshevik, Marxism, Proletariat, Leninism, Comintern, Rosa Luxemburg, Herman Gorter, Antonie Pannekoek, Otto Ruhle, Karl Korsch, Amadeo Bordiga, Paul Mattick, ed. John McBrewster. Alphascript Pub., 2009.
Mitter, Rana. China’s Good War: How World War II Is Shaping a New Nationalism, The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2020.
Mitter, Rana. China’s War with Japan, 1937-1945: The Struggle for Survival, Allen Lane an imprint of Penguin Books, 2013,
Mitter, Rana. Modern China: A Very Short Introduction. Very Short Introductions, Oxford University Press, 2008.
Monsterleet, Jean. Martyrs in China, tran. Antonia Pakenham. Chicago: Henry Regnery Company, 1956.
Myers, James T. Enemies without Guns: The Catholic Church in the People’s Republic of China. Professors World Peace Academy, 1991.
Nelson, Daniel. The Apostle to the Chinese Communists. Augsburg Publishing House, 1935.
Novick, Peter. The Holocaust in American Life. 1st ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2000.
Oldfield, Walter Herbert. Pioneering in Kwangsi: The Story of Alliance Missions in South China, Pennsylvania: Christian publications, 1936.
Palmer, Gretta. God’s Underground in Asia, New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1953.
Palombaro, Ottavio. “Introduction,” in Christianity and Capitalism in China, Springer Nature Singapore, 2024, 1-14.
Preston, Diana. The Boxer Rebellion: The Dramatic Story of China’s War on Foreigners That Shook the World in the Summer of 1900. New York: Penguin Publishing Group, 2001.
Price, Willard. A Real Revolution in China, Board of Foreign Missions of the Methodist Episcopal Church, 1914.
Royal, Robert. The Catholic Martyrs of the Twentieth Century: A Comprehensive World History, Crossroad Pub Co, 2006.
Russell, Bertrand A. W. Roads to Freedom: Socialism, Anarchism, and Syndicalism. 10th ed. London: Unwin Brothers Ltd., 1954.
Russell, Bertrand A. W. The Value of Free Thought: How to Become a Truth-Seeker and Break the Chains of Mental Slavery, Kansas: Haldeman-Julius Publications, 1944.
Said, Edward W. Orientalism: Western Conceptions of the Orient. Facsimile ed. Penguin Modern Classics. London: Penguin, 2003.
Sharf, Frederic A., and Peter Harrington. China, 1900: The Eyewitnesses Speak - the Experience of Westerners in China during the Boxer Rebellion, as Described by Participants in Letters, Diaries and Photographs. London: Greenhill Books & Stackpole Books, 2000.
Silbey, David. The Boxer Rebellion and the Great Game in China. 1st pbk ed. New York: Hill and Wang, 2013.
Smith, Ray. The China Experience: Martin Ekvalls and Howard Smith 1892-2013, Privately published, 2013.
Spencer, Philip, and Howard Wollman. Nationalism: A Critical Introduction. Reprinted. London: SAGE, 2003.
Taylor, Howard. The Triumph of John and Betty Stam, 1st Print. China Inland Mission, 1935.
Tennien, Mark A. No Secret Is Safe: Behind the Bamboo Curtain, New York: Farrar, Straus and Young, 1952.
Thompson, Larry Clinton. William Scott Ament and the Boxer Rebellion: Heroism, Hubris and the “Ideal Missionary”. Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Co., 2009.
Tucker, Ruth A. From Jerusalem to Irian Jaya: A Biographical History of Christian Missions, 2nd ed. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2011.
Van de Ven, Hans J. China at War: Triumph and Tragedy in the Emergence of the New China, Harvard University Press, 2018.
Wade, Stephen. Foul Deeds and Suspicious Deaths in and Around Halifax, Barnsley: Wharncliffe Books, 2004.
Weber, Max. Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, London: Routledge, 2013.
Weber, Max. The Religion of China: Confucianism and Taoism, trans. Hans H. Gerth. Glencoe, IL: Free Press, 1951.
Yang, Lien-sheng. “Historical Notes on the Chinese World Order,” in The Chinese World Order: Traditional China’s Foreign Relations, ed. John King Fairbank. Harvard East Asian Series 32. Harvard University Press, 1968.
Zarrow, Peter Gue. Abolishing Boundaries: Global Utopias in the Formation of Modern Chinese Political Thought, 1880–1940. SUNY Series in Chinese Philosophy and Culture. Albany: State University of New York, 2021.
Essays and Theses
Bain, Chester A. “Commodore Matthew Perry, Humphrey Marshall, and the Taiping Rebellion,” The Far Eastern Quarterly 10, No. 3 (May 1951): 258-70.
Bates, M. Searle. “Churches and Christians in China, 1950-1967: Fragments of Understanding,” Pacific Affairs 41, no. 2 (1968): 199-213.
Bickers, Robert A., and Jeffrey N. Wasserstrom. “Shanghai’s ‘Dogs and Chinese Not Admitted’ Sign: Legend, History and Contemporary Symbol,” The China Quarterly 142 (June 1995): 444-66.
Boer, Roland, and Kenpa Chin. “Chinese Christian Communism in the Early Twentieth Century,” Religion, State and Society 44, no. 2 (2016): 96-110.
Buss, Andreas. “The Evolution of Western Individualism,” Religion 30, no. 1 (2000): 1-25.
Callahan, William A. “National Insecurities: Humiliation, Salvation, and Chinese Nationalism,” Alternatives: Global, Local, Political 29, No.2 (March 2004): 199-218.
Clark, Paul. “Changsha in the 1930: Red Army Occupation,” Modern China 7, no.4 (October 1981): 413-44.
Cohen, Paul A. “Remembering and Forgetting National Humiliation in Twentieth-Century China,” Twentieth-Century China 27, No.2 (April 2002): 1-39.
Cohen, Paul A. “Review of Religion, Nationalism, and Chinese Students: The Anti-Christian Movement of 1922-1927, by K. Yip,” The China Quarterly, No. 83 (September 1980): 582-583.
Cohen, Paul A. “The Anti-Christian Tradition in China,” The Journal of Asian Studies 20, No.2 (February 1961): 169-180.
Coleman, Michael C. “Presbyterian Missionary Attitudes Toward China and the Chinese, 1837-1900,” Journal of Presbyterian History (1962-1985) 56, No.3 (1978): 185-200.
Dikötter, Frank. “Nationalism and Sexuality in China,” Itinerario 18, No.2 (1994): 10-21.
Dirlik, Arif. “Chinese History and the Question of Orientalism,” History and Theory 35, No.4 (December 1996): 96.
Dunbar, R.I.M. “Neocortex Size as a Constraint on Group Size in Primates,” Journal of Human Evolution 22, No.6 (June 1992): 469-493.
Endicott, Stephen, and Ka-che Yip. “Religion, Nationalism and Chinese Students,” Pacific Affairs 53, No.4 (1980): 732.
Fanell, James E. “China’s Global Naval Strategy and Expanding Force Structure: Pathway to Hegemony,” Naval War College Review 72, No.1 (2019): 17-61.
Harrison, Stephen. “Communism and Christianity: Missionaries and the communist seizure of power in China,” Nashville: Ph. D. dissertation, Vanderbilt University, 2013.
Hodous, Lewis. “The Anti-Christian Movement in China,” the Journal of Religion 10, No.4 (October 1930): 487-494.
Jones, Francis P. “The Christian Church in Communist China,” Far Eastern Survey 24, No.12 (December 1955): 184-188.
Kedourie, Elie. “Revolutionary Nationalism in Asia and Africa,” Government and Opposition 3, No.4 (1968): 453-464.
Liu, Qingjun. “Redefining North China during the Sino-Japanese War: The Jin-Xi Incident, 1939-1940,” Asian Studies Review, Special Focus on Modern Japan 44, no. 3 (2020): 441-58.
Liu, Qingjun. “Reinterpreting the Chinese Revolution: The Balance between Radical and Moderate Approaches, 1937-1945,” Modern China 48, no. 2 (2022): 353–87.
Lutz, Jessie G. “Attrition among Protestant Missionaries in China, 1807-1890,” International Bulletin of Missionary Research 36, No.1 (January 2012): 22-27.
Lutz, Jessie G. “Chinese Nationalism and the Anti-Christian Campaigns of the 1920s,” Modern Asian Studies 10, No.3 (1976): 395-416.
Masland, John W. “Communism and Christianity in China,” The Journal of Religion 32, no. 3 (1952): 198–206.
Maslow, Abraham H. “A Theory of Human Motivation,” Psychological Review 50, No.4 (July 1943): 370-396.
Moll, Helmut. “Becoming a Martyr in China: The Steyl Missionary Father Paul Buhl (1902-1944),” International Journal of Sino-Western Studies 20 (July 2021): 231-236.
Mungello, D. E. “Reinterpreting the History of Christianity in China,” The Historical Journal 55, No.2 (June 2012): 533-552.
Priestley, K. E. “Chinese Communism and Christianity,” Far Eastern Survey 21, No.2 (30 Jan 1952): 17-20.
Taylor, Jeremy E. “‘To Cleanse the Countryside We Must First Cleanse Hearts’: The Culture of Rural Pacification in Japanese-Occupied China,” Cultural and Social History 19, no. 3 (2022): 265-82.
Tucker, Nancy Bernkopf. “An Unlikely Peace: American Missionaries and the Chinese Communists, 1948-1950,” Pacific Historical Review 45, No.1 (February 1976): 97-116.
Yamamoto, Tatsuro, and Sumiko Yamamoto. “The Anti-Christian Movement in China, 1922-1927,” The Far Eastern Quarterly 12, No.2 (February 1953): 133.
Yang, Fenggang. “Religion in China under Communism: A Shortage Economy Explanation,” Journal of Church and State 52, no. 1 (2010): 3-33.
Zhu, Haiyan, and Xiao Lin. “Communism and the Rise of the Anti-Christian Movement in Republican China,” Religions 16, no. 2 (2025): 228.
Online News
“U.S. ‘Dissatisfied’ With China’s Disclosures About Stabbings,” The New York Times (online, 8 August 2024). Available at https://www.nytimes.com/2024/08/08/world/asia/jilin-china-stabbings.html, visited on December 26, 2025.
“China mourns death of woman who tried to stop knifeman after attack on Japanese family in Suzhou,” Channel News Asia (online, 30 Jun 2024). Available at https://www.channelnewsasia.com/east-asia/china-mourns-death-woman-who-tried-stop-knifeman-after-attack-japanese-family-suzhou-4434841, visited on December 26, 2025.
“Ten-year-old Japanese boy dies after stabbing in China,” British Broadcasting Corporation (online, 19 September 2024). Available at https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cy94qq01qweo, visited on December 26, 2025.
中文資料
檔案
〈美教士師達能夫婦被害之兇犯南愛豐等四人判處死刑〉，中華民國外交部，《外僑被綁架傷害（二十六）》：國史館數位典藏號：020-990600-3416，頁95-96。
中國工農兵會議（蘇維埃）第一次全國代表大會中央準備委員會，〈為反對帝國主義國民黨軍閥進攻蘇維埃紅軍告民眾書〉（1930年10月20日），中華民國法務部調查局收藏，《中國國民黨中央執行委員會調查統計局檔案》，檔號255.25/803。
中國共產黨，〈反抗帝國主義國民黨軍閥進攻紅軍〉（應為1930年10月31日發），中華民國法務部調查局收藏，《中國國民黨中央執行委員會調查統計局檔案》，檔號253.11384/7467。
史料彙編
〈蘇俄指使共匪製造排外事件之俄文密令〉，中華民國開國文獻編纂委員會編，《共匪禍國史料彙編》第1卷，中華民國開國五十年文獻，臺北：中華民國開國五十年文獻編纂委員會，1964。
顧順章，〈匪黨中央政治局委員兼特務總負責人顧順章告中共青年書〉，中華民國開國文獻編纂委員會編《共匪禍國史料彙編》第2卷，中華民國開國五十年文獻，臺北：中華民國開國五十年文獻編纂委員會，1964。
吳盛德、陳增輝編，《敎案史料編目》，北平：燕京大學宗教學院，1941。
中央檔案館編，《中共中央文件選集（1931）》第七冊，北京：中共中央黨校出版社，1991。
雜誌、報紙
〈廣州聖三一同學的正當要求〉，《中國青年》，第2卷第33期（1924年），頁9-10。
〈師逹能夫婦在旌德被害案〉，《外部周刊》，第51期（1935年），頁28-29。
〈讚「紅燈照」〉，《人民日報》（北京），1967年4月17日，3版。
陳寶泉，〈基督教義是違反國家主義的嗎？〉，《中華基督教教育季刊》，第1卷第1期（1925年），頁18-19。
陳潭秋，〈糧食突擊不能如期完成的危險是在威脅著我們〉，《紅色中華》，第210期（1934年7月5日），頁2。
胡適，〈今日教會教育的難關〉，《中华基督教教育季刊》，第1卷1期（1925年），7-13。
胡適，〈我們走那條路〉，《新月》，第2卷10期（1929年），頁6-21。
惲代英（但一），〈徐州教會學生的奮鬥〉，《中國青年》，第2卷第32期（1924），頁10-11。
覺我，〈可憐監獄學校下的學生〉，《中國青年》，第2卷第33期（1924年），頁10-11。
李炳祥，〈帝國主義的先鋒——基督教〉，《覺悟（民國日報附刊）》，（1924年11月11日），頁2。
李春蕃，〈傳教與帝國主義〉，《反對基督教運動》，中國青年社非基督教同盟（1924年10月），頁5-12。
李春蕃，〈社評〉，《覺悟（民國日報附刊）》，（1924年11月25日），頁2。
李子，〈基督教究竟是不是帝國主義的工具？：駁聞保墉君底「對於『反對基督教大會』的感想」〉，《覺悟（民國日報附刊）》，（1925年2月11日），頁5-6。
梁漱溟，〈敬以请教胡适之先生〉，《村治》，第1卷第2期（1930年），頁1-8。
劉紹先，〈可憐還有這多青年入教會學校〉，《覺悟（民國日報附刊）》，（1924年11月25日），頁3-4。
劉廷芳，〈基督教在中國今日當如何自修以止謗〉，《生命》，第6卷第2期（1925年），頁3-16。
劉一清，〈基督教徒聽著〉，《覺悟（民國日報附刊）》，（1924年11月11日），頁3。
梅龔彬，〈基督教與中國〉，收入《反對基督教運動》，中國青年社非基督教同盟（1924年），頁13-23。
毛澤覃，〈為全部完成糧食突擊計劃而鬥爭〉，《鬥爭》，第49期（1934年3月2日），頁8-13。
青島非基督教大同盟，〈為反基督教運動告青年工人〉，《覺悟（民國日報附刊）》，（1925年12月31日），頁2。
吳雷川，〈論中國基督徒對於國家應負的責任〉，《生命》，第5卷第5期（1925年2月），頁碼不詳。
吳曉天，〈基督教與無產階級〉，《覺悟（民國日報附刊）》，（1924年11月25日），頁2-3。
亦文，〈「痛定思痛」——1900年在华宣教团体对庚子教难的声明与反思〉，《教会（Church China）》，84期（2020年2月），頁82-96。
鄭超麟、舒嚴，〈基督教與帝國主義〉，《熱血日報》，（1925年6月16日），頁不詳。
中共中央，〈中央關於帝國主義國民黨四次「圍勦」與我們的任務的决議〉，《布爾塞維克》，第5卷第1期（1932年），頁3-20。
中共中央政治局，〈動員群眾擴大反帝運動的決議〉，《紅旗周報》，第11期（1931年3月27日），頁1-11。
中國共產黨中央委員會，〈關於完成推銷公債徵收土地稅收集糧食保障紅軍給養的突擊運動的決定〉，《鬥爭》，第45期（1934年），頁7-9。
文集、回憶錄、訪談錄
Taire、Lucian，《上海紅禍記》，鍾榮蒼譯，臺北：中央文物供應社，1958。
成邦慶，《一個外國傳教士俘虜的長征：成邦慶回憶錄》，Anne-MarieBrady編，劉家峰、劉莉譯。新北市：臺灣基督教文藝出版社有限公司，2016。
非宗教大同盟編，《非宗教論》（初版），北京知新書社，1922。
郭廷以，張朋園，馬天綱，陳三井，《白瑜先生訪問紀錄》，中央研究院近代史研究所口述歷史叢書14，臺北：中央研究院近代史研究所，1987。
黃錫培編，《回首百年殉道血：1900年義和團事件殉道宣教士的「生命」故事》（初版），香港：中國信徒佈道會，2009。
黃錫培編，《捨命的愛：中國內地會宣教士小傳》（第2版），加州佩塔盧馬：美國中信出版社，2007。
張亦鏡，《最近反基督教運動的紀評》，廣州：美華浸會印書局，1925。
朱執信，《朱執信集》（第3版），民智書局，1928。
專書
Gershaneck、Kerry K，《中國滲透：揭開中共不戰而屈人之兵的隱形攻勢》，余宗基、簡妙娟譯，今周刊出版社，2024。
Grieder、Jerome B，《胡適之評傳》，張振玉譯（第一版），海口：南海出版公司，1992。
Harrison、Henrietta，《傳教士的詛咒：一個華北村莊的全球史（1640-2000）》，郭偉全譯，香港：香港中文大學出版社，2021。
Lampton、David M，《從鄧小平到習近平》，林添貴譯（初版），臺北：遠流出版事業股份有限公司，2015。
Lazzarotto、Angelo S 等，《義和團運動與中國基督宗教》（初版），臺北縣新莊市：輔仁大學出版社，2004。
Mason、Mary Gertrude，《西方的中華帝國觀》，楊德山譯（初版），新竹：理藝出版社，2005。
Meisner、Maurice J 和 PuDu，《毛澤東的中國及其後：中華人民共和國史》，香港：中文大學出版社，2005。
Sharf、Frederic A，和 PeterHarrington，《1900：西方人的敘述》，顧明譯，天津，2010。
Smith、Arthur H，《中國人德行》，張夢陽，王麗娟譯（初版），臺北：泰電電業股份有限公司，2006。
Tucker、Ruth A，《宣教披荊斬棘史》，蔣黃心湄，廖何碧瑩，唐頌恩譯（第二版），加州佩塔盧馬：中國信徒佈道會，2007。
安德森，《想像的共同體：民族主義的起源與散布》，吳睿人譯（第二版），臺北：時報文化，2010。
畢可思，《滾出中國：十九、二十世紀的國耻，如何締造了民族主義的中國》，胡欣諄譯（初版），臺北：時報文化出版企業股份有限公司，2018。
陳銀崑，《清季民教衝突的量化分析（1860-1899）》，史學研究論文叢刊，臺北：商務印書館，1991。
戴玄之，《義和團研究》（第一版），歷史與社會經典重刊，北京：北京⼤學出版社，2010。
方德萬，《戰火中國1937-1952：流轉的勝利與悲劇，近代新中國的內爆與崛起》，何啟仁譯（初版），新北市：聯經出版事業股份有限公司，2020。
郭廷以，《近代中國史綱》（重排本），香港：中文大學出版社，2019。
鶴闌珊，《你所不知道的義和團運動真相》（第一版），20世紀中國，香港：香港聯合書刊物流，2012。
賀麟，《文化與人生》，上海文藝出版社，2001。
洪長泰，《染紅中國：中共建國初期的控制政治》，麥惠嫻譯，臺灣：聯經出版，2023。
洪長泰，《毛澤東的新世界：中華人民共和國初期的政治文化》，麥惠嫻譯（初版），三十．三十書系，香港：香港中文大學出版社，2019。
侯宜傑，《「神拳」義和團的真面目》，史地傳記類119，臺北：秀威資訊，2010。
胡適，《胡適日記全集第一册（1906-1914）》，曹伯言編（初版），臺北：聯經，2004。
黃黎、方北，《中共風雲錄》，北京：作家出版社，1999。
蔣中正，《中國之命運》，臺北：正中書局，1987。
柯文保羅，《歷史三調：作為事件、經歷和神話的義和團》，杜繼東譯（典藏版），北平：社會科學文獻出版社，2015。
柯文保羅，《在中國發現歷史：中國中心觀在美國的興起》，林同奇譯（初版），甲骨文叢書。北京：社會科學文獻出版社，2017。
黎仁凱、姜文英，《直隸義和團運動與社會心態》（第1版），石家莊：河北教育出版社，2001。
劉繼興，《魅力毛澤東：不為人知的五大謎團》（初版），新北市中和區：代表作國際圖書，2013。
劉淇昆，《八國聯軍乃正義之師》（初版），History068，臺北：時報文化，2021。
陸玉芹，《穿越歷史的忠奸之辨：庚子事變中「五大臣」被殺研究》（初版），北京：中國社會科學出版社，2010。
秦暉，《走出帝制：從晚清到民國的歷史回望》（初版），北京：群言出版社，2015。
石川禎浩，《中國近代歷史的表與裏》，袁廣泉譯，博雅史學論叢-海外中國史研究，北京：北京大學出版社，2015。
蘇萍，《謠言與近代教案》，遠東文庫-百年中國，上海：遠東出版社，2001。
唐曉風、王帥編，《民國時期非基督教運動重要文獻彙編》（第1版），中國基督宗教重要文獻彙編叢書，北京：社會科學文獻出版社，2015。
陶飛亞，《衝突的解釋──基督教與近代中國政治》（初版），馬禮遜入華宣教二百年紀念文集——論文22，臺北：基督教宇宙光全人關懷機構，2006。
魏外揚，《中國教會的使徒行傳：來華宣教士列傳》（初版），馬禮遜入華宣教200年論文集——傳記20，臺北：基督教宇宙光全人關懷機構，2006。
邢福增，《基督教在中國的失敗：中國共產運動與基督教史論》增訂版，漢語基督教文化研究所叢刊31，道風書社，2012年。
楊天宏，《基督教與民國知識分子：1922年-1927年中國非基督教運動研究》（第1版），東方學術。北京：人民出版社，2005。
楊瑞松，《病夫、黃禍與睡獅：「西方」視野中的中國形象與近代中國國族論述想像》，臺北：政大出版社，2010。
姚斌，《拳民形象在美國》（第一版），北京外國語大學2008年度博士論文庫系列，北京：世界知識出版社，2010。
葉仁昌，《近代中國的宗教批判 ：非基運動的再思》（第3版），臺北：雅歌出版社，1993。
余英時，《重尋胡適歷程：胡適生平與思想再認識》增訂版，院士叢書，臺北：聯經，2004。
遠藤譽，《毛澤東勾結日軍的真相：來自日諜的回憶與檔案》，真相系列99，紐約：明鏡出版社，2016。
曾慶豹，《紅星與⼗字架——中國共產黨的基督徒友人》（初版），學院叢書系列4，臺北：主流出版有限公司，2019。
張戎、Jon Halliday，《毛澤東：鮮為人知的故事》（初版），香港：開封出版社，2006。
周錫瑞，《義和團運動的起源》第一版，張俊義、王棟譯，海外中國研究叢書，南京：江蘇人民出版社，2005。
期刊論文、專書論文
陳方中，〈傳教士與帝國主義——以西林教案為例〉，《輔大宗教系2000年：宗教交談研討會論文集》（輔仁大學，2002年），頁225-253。
陳方中，〈義和團時期的反教言論〉，《輔仁歷史學報》，第18期（臺北，2006年2月），頁159-198。
陳方中，〈義和團運動中民教衝突的性質─以朱家河事件為例〉，《輔仁歷史學報》，第19期（臺北，2007年春），頁17-56。
段瑞聰，〈太平洋戰爭前期蔣介石的戰後構想（1941-1943）〉，《國史館館刊》，第32期（臺北，2012年），頁121-52。
賴世上，〈抗戰期間國共的妥協、衝突與爭議評析〉，《國防雜誌》，27卷1期（臺北，2012年），頁45-62。
劉維開，〈作為基督徒的蔣中正〉，《史林》，第1期（2011年），頁120-132。
呂實強，〈晚清中國知識分子對基督教在華傳教目的的疑懼（一八六○－一八九八）〉，《臺灣師大歷史學報》，第3期（1975年1月），頁147-158。
馬建標、陸禎嚴，〈國際競爭的中國迴響：1920年代的非基督教運動再探〉，《社會科學研究》，第4期（臺北，2023年），頁156-68。
潘光哲，〈「殖民地」的概念史：從「新名詞」到「關鍵詞」〉，《中央研究院近代史研究所集刊》，第82期（臺北，2013年12月），頁55-92。
任劍濤，〈「中華民族」敘事：國族證成中的古為今用〉，《中央民族大學學報》（哲學社會科學版），第48卷254期（北京，2021年），頁5-21。
沈松僑，〈召喚沈默的亡者：我們需要怎樣的國族歷史？〉，《臺灣社會研究季刊》，第57期（臺北，2005年3月1日），頁241-46。
石川禎浩，〈「華人與狗不得入內」告示牌問題考〉，收入黃克武編，《中央研究院第三屆國際漢學會議論文集歷史組：思想、政權與社會力量》，臺北：中央研究院近代史研究所，2002。
石川禎浩，〈走進「信仰」的年代：1922年反基督教運動初探〉，《二十世紀中國的社會與文化》，袁廣泉譯，北平：社會科學文獻出版社，2013，頁168-192。
陶飛亞，〈抗戰時期中共對基督教會的新政策〉，《文史哲》，（山東大學，1995年），頁10-15。
田英傑，〈丁味略神父在香港的傳教使命與貢獻〉，阮志偉編，《天主教研究學報》，第7期（香港，2016年），頁29-68。
凃京威，〈韓戰時期中國共產黨的天主教政策變化〉，《中國大陸研究》，第64卷1期（2021年），頁101-127。
王奇生，〈亡國、亡省、亡人：1915-1925年中國民族主義運動之演進〉，收入柯偉林、周言編，《不確定的遺產》，北京：九州出版社，2012年，頁104-127。
許俊琳，〈抗戰時期中國基督徒的民主想像與認同政治〉，《歷史文化》，第115期（2023年），頁69-80。
楊瑞松，〈從「民吾同胞」到「我四萬萬同胞之國民」：傳統到近現代「同胞」符號意涵的變化〉，《國立政治大學歷史學報》，第45期（臺北，2016年5月），頁109-164。
楊瑞松，〈打造共同體的新仇舊恨：鄒容國族論述中的「他者建構」〉，《國立政治大學歷史學報》，第37期（臺北，2012年5月），頁43-71。
楊瑞松，〈近代中國的「四萬萬」國族論述想像〉，《東亞觀念史集刊》，第2期（臺北，2012年6月），頁283-335。
余英時，〈回首辛亥革命〉，收入柯偉林、周言編，《不確定的遺產》，北京：九州出版社，2012，頁44-58。
張而弛，〈以學術對學術：1960年代國民黨政府對《美國外交文件》的反應〉，《中央研究院近代史研究所集刊》，第119期（臺北，2023年），頁87-135。
學位論文
黃寬裕，《論中國大陸愛國主義教育──後殖民與民族主義的觀點》，臺北：國立政治大學東亞研究所博士論文，2006。
林淑鈴，《福音與謠言：清代官民對基督教活動的看法》，臺北：國立臺灣師範大學碩士論文，2007。
張其賢，〈「中國」概念與「華夷」之辨的歷史探討〉，臺北：國立臺灣大學博士學位論文，2009。
網路資料
〈（中國大陸）教育部：绝不能让传播西方价值观念教材进课堂〉，人民網新聞報導，2015年01月30日。http://politics.people.com.cn/n/2015/0130/c70731-26480304.html，擷取日期：2023年2月24日。
〈袁貴仁回應「西方價值觀不適合課堂」〉，中國網報導，2016年3月100日。http://www.china.com.cn/lianghui/v/2016-03/10/content_37990781.html，擷取日期：2022年12月30日。
中共「中央」辦公廳、「國務院」辦公廳印發，〈關於加強新時代法學教育和法學理論研究的意見〉，中共大陸地區「國防部」及「教育部」門戶網報導，2023年2月26日前。
http://www.mod.gov.cn/gfbw/fgwx/16204387.html or http://www.moe.gov.cn/jyb_xxgk/moe_1777/moe_1778/202302/t20230227_1047943.html
擷取日期：2023年2月28日。