本研究旨在探討校長科技領導、教師專業發展、教師自我效能與科技融入教學之關係，並檢證教師專業發展與教師自我效能在校長科技領導與科技融入教學關係中之平行中介效果及其差異。本研究採傳統成對啟發式後設分析取向結構方程模式（Traditional/Heuristic Pairwise MASEM）；先以成對後設分析（pairwise meta-analysis）整合經系統性篩選之 24 篇國外期刊文獻（累計樣本 14,110 人），計算變項間之合併效果量並經樣本數加權建構合併相關矩陣，再以SEM軟體進行路徑分析檢驗變項間之直接效果，並以蒙地卡羅模擬法（5,000次）檢驗平行中介效果。研究結果如下：一、四變項兩兩均呈正向顯著相關（r = .361至.587），以校長科技領導與教師專業發展間相關係數最高；二、五條結構路徑均達正向顯著影響（β = .191至.656），以校長科技領導對教師專業發展最強（β = .656，R² = .431）；三、兩條平行中介路徑均達顯著（間接效果分別為 .190與.087，總中介效果 .276），因直接效果亦顯著（β = .191），屬部分中介，中介效果占總效果（ .467）之59.1%；四、兩條路徑差異達顯著（ .103，95% CI [.036, .164]），教師專業發展之中介效果約為教師自我效能之兩倍，為關鍵傳遞橋樑。建議學校以校長科技領導為起點，優先充實系統化之教師專業發展，並同步培養教師之科技特定效能；未來研究可擴大文獻來源、檢定出版偏誤與調節效果，並嘗試一階段（one-stage）MASEM或其他可同時處理效果量相依性之多變項整合分析取向，以檢核結論之穩健性。

This study examined the relationships among principals' technology leadership, teacher professional development, teacher self-efficacy, and technology integration in teaching, and tested the parallel mediating effects of the latter two variables and their difference. A traditional (heuristic) pairwise meta-analytic structural equation modeling (pairwise MASEM) approach was employed. Twenty-four systematically screened international journal articles (N = 14,110) were first synthesized pairwise to obtain pooled effect sizes and to construct a sample-size-weighted pooled correlation matrix, which was then submitted to SEM-based path analysis to examine direct effects; Monte Carlo simulation (5,000 replications) tested mediating effects. First, all pairwise correlations were positive and significant (r = .361 to .587), with leadership and professional development most strongly associated. Second, all five structural paths were significantly positive (β = .191 to .656), the strongest being leadership on professional development (β = .656, R² = .431). Third, both parallel mediating paths were significant (indirect effects = .190 and .087; total mediated effect = .276); as the direct effect also remained significant (β = .191), the model exhibited partial mediation, with the mediated effect accounting for 59.1% of the total effect (.467). Fourth, the two paths differed significantly (difference = .103, 95% CI [.036, .164]): the mediating effect of professional development was approximately twice that of self-efficacy, constituting the key transmitting mechanism. Schools should treat principals' technology leadership as the starting point, prioritize systematic teacher professional development, and cultivate technology-specific self-efficacy. Future research may broaden literature sources, test publication bias and moderators, and adopt one-stage MASEM or other multivariate synthesis techniques that accommodate dependency among effect sizes to assess robustness.

一、 中文部分
余民寧（2006）。潛在變項模式：SIMPLIS的應用。高等教育。
吳明隆（2006）。結構方程模式: SIMPLIS 的應用。五南。
吳勁甫（2011）。校長領導對學校效能影響模式之探析。教育經營與管理研究集刊，7，1–25。
吳為聖、張惠博、郭重吉（2007）。影響國中自然科教師接受資訊科技融入教學之個人因素研究。科學教育學刊，15(5)，543–563。
李茂能（2015）。傳統整合分析理論與實務: ESS & EXCEL。五南。
李茂能（2016）。當代整合分析理論與實務。五南。
邱憲義、蕭佳純（2019）。高中教師教學風格與教學效能之相關研究-以教師專業發展為中介變項, 學校組織文化為調節變項。當代教育研究季刊，27(1)，39–78。
孫志麟（2003）。教師自我效能的概念與測量。教育心理學報，34(2)，139–156。
孫志麟（2009）。師資教育的未來: 政策與實踐。學富。
秦夢群、張奕華（2006）。校長科技領導層面與實施現況之研究。教育與心理研究，29(1)，1–27。
張存真、宋曜廷、邱皓政（2022）。教師協作在校長教學領導對教師自我效能 影響的多層次中介效果研究: 兼論教育階段的調節效果。教育研究科學期刊，67(4)，35–72。
張奕華、吳怡佳 （2008）。校長科技領導與教師教學效能關係之研究。教育研究與發展期刊，4(1)，171–194。
教育部（2022）。推動中小學數位學習精進方案:111年國民中小學實施計畫。https://www.edu.tw/News_Content.aspx?n=0217161130F0B192&sms=DD4E27A7858227FF&s=E3537E41E6B8ACB4
教育部（2024）。教育部中小學校長數位學習指引。https://pads.moe.edu.tw/download
謝傳崇（2024）。校長 AI 科技領導的意涵與發展。教育研究月刊，368，4–21。
謝傳崇、李慧潔、張羿涵、陳雨然（2024）。COVID-19 線上教學教師情緒勞務對 自我效能感影響之研究—以教學正念為調節變項。教育科學研究期刊，69(2)，43–67。
謝傳崇、蕭文智（2013）。國民小學校長科技領導與學生學習表現關係之研究：以學校 ICT 運用為中介變項。教育理論與實踐學刊，27，291–324。
饒見維（2003）。教師專業發展：理論與實務。五南。
二、英文部分
註：文獻前標示 * 者，為納入本研究後設分析之 24 篇研究
Abbitt, J. T. (2011). An investigation of the relationship between self-efficacy beliefs about technology integration and technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK) among preservice teachers. Journal of Digital Learning in Teacher Education, 27(4), 134–143.
Abdullah, Z., Anthony, V. J., Zabidi, Z. M., & Kenayathulla, H. B. (2025). The mediating role of teacher self-efficacy in relationship between professional learning community and collective teacher efficacy in Sarawak primary schools, Malaysia. Environment and Social Psychology, 10(4), 3522.
*Abdul Rahman, S., & A Hamid, A. H. (2025). Digital Leadership Practices of Principals and Teachers' Self-Efficacy in Secondary Schools. International Journal of Academic Research In Progressive education & Development, 14(1).
Abedi, E. A., Ackah-Jnr, F. R., & Ametepey, A. K. (2026). Learning through informal spaces for technology integration: Unpacking the nature of teachers' learning and its implications for classroom pedagogy. Education 3-13, 54(1), 15–30.
Afshari, M., Bakar, K. A., Luan, W. S., & Siraj, S. (2012). Factors affecting the transformational leadership role of principals in implementing ICT in schools. Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology, 11(4), 164–176.
Agustina, R., Kamdi, W., Hadi, S., & Nurhadi, D. (2020). Influence of the principal's digital leadership on the reflective practices of vocational teachers mediated by trust, self efficacy, and work engagement. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 19(11), 24–40.
Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50(2), 179–211.
Akram, H., & Yang, Y. (2021). A critical analysis of the weak implementation causes on educational policies in Pakistan. International Journal of Humanities and Innovation, 4(1), 25–28.
Akram, H., Abdelrady, A. H., Al-Adwan, A. S., & Ramzan, M. (2022). Teachers' perceptions of technology integration in teaching-learning practices: A systematic review. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 920317.
* Alajmi, M. K. (2022). The impact of digital leadership on teachers’ technology integration during the COVID-19 pandemic in Kuwait. International Journal of Educational Research, 112, 101928.
AlDhaheri, S. M., Faisal, M., & Sharma, R. (2026). Impact of digital leadership on users' technology integration and digital transformation. Journal of Innovation and Knowledge, 14, 100965.
Alharbi, H., & Iqtadar, S. (2024). 'I never feel like I am prepared enough': Teachers' self-efficacy, challenges and experiences teaching students with disabilities. Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs, 24(3), 758–770.
Alhazemi, A. A. (2024). Transformative Approaches to Sustainable Education: Technology, Leadership and SDGs in Higher Education Institutions. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 23(5), 41-67.
Almutairi, A., & Altaf, B. (2024). A structural equation modeling of the impact of teacher self-efficacy on teachers' teaching practice in Saudi Arabia: Evidence from TALIS 2018. European Journal of Pure and Applied Mathematics, 17(3), 2001–2027.
*A'mar, F., & Eleyan, D. (2022). Effect of principal's technology leadership on teacher's technology integration. International Journal of Instruction, 15(1), 781–798.
Anderson, J. C., & Gerbing, D. W. (1988). Structural equation modeling in practice: A review and recommended two-step approach. Psychological Bulletin, 103(3), 411–423.
*Anderson, R. E., & Dexter, S. (2005). School technology leadership: An empirical investigation of prevalence and effect. Educational Administration Quarterly, 41(1), 49–82.
Antonenko, P. D. (2015). The instrumental value of conceptual frameworks in educational technology research. Educational Technology Research and Development, 63(1), 53–71.
Armor, D., Conroy-Oseguera, P., Cox, M., King, N., McDonnell, L., Pascal, A., Pauly, E., & Zellman, G. (1976). Analysis of the school preferred reading program in selected Los Angeles minority schools (Report No. R-2007-LAUSD). RAND Corporation.
Arnold, D., & Sangrà, A. (2018). Dawn or dusk of the 5th age of research in educational technology? A literature review on (e-)leadership for technology-enhanced learning in higher education (2013–2017). International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 15(1), 1–29.
Arslan, Y., & Sumuer, E. (2024). What do empirical studies on technology leadership in education tell us?: content analysis, bibliometric analysis, and text mining. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 1-23.
Audisio, A. P., Taylor-Perryman, R., Tasker, T. B., & Steinberg, M. P. (2025). Does teacher professional development improve student learning? Evidence from Leading Educators' fellowship model. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, 18(4), 878–917.
Avalos, B. (2011). Teacher professional development in teaching and teacher education over ten years. Teaching and Teacher Education, 27(1), 10–20.
*Baharuddin, F. R., Amiruddin, A., Nurlaela, N., & Setialaksana, W. (2024). Teacher growth mindset and ICT integration in Indonesian classrooms: Insights from in-service and preservice teacher programs. Quality Assurance in Education, 32(2), 197–212.
Bailey, G. D. (1997). What technology leaders need to know: The essential top 10 concepts for technology integration in the 21st century. Learning and Leading with Technology, 25(1), 57–62.
Baldera, P. R., Saunil, C. C., Patiam, A. M. C., Agpaoa, M. K. A. B., Villanueva, E. R., Fontamillas, K. I., Divina, L. V., Pelayo, R., Felipe, R. N., Jr., Mercado, M. T., & Valenzuela, R. M. (2025). Digital leadership pioneers: Navigating outstanding school principals’ successes in the evolving educational landscape. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 24(4), 154–177.
Bandura, A. (1977a). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84(2), 191–215.
Bandura, A. (1977b). Social learning theory. Prentice-Hall.
Bandura, A. (1978). Reflections on self-efficacy. Advances in Behaviour Research and Therapy, 1(4), 237–269.
Bandura, A. (1982). Self-efficacy mechanism in human agency. American Psychologist, 37(2), 122–147.
Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action. Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1986(23-28), 2.
Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman.
Bandura, A. (1999). Social cognitive theory of personality. In L. A. Pervin & O. P. John (Eds.), Handbook of personality: Theory and research (2nd ed., pp. 154–196). Guilford Press.
Banoglu, K. (2011). School principals' technology leadership competency and technology coordinatorship. Educational Sciences: Theory and Practice, 11(1), 208–213.
Banoğlu, K., Vanderlinde, R., & Çetin, M. (2016). Investigation of principals' technology leadership profiles in the context of schools' learning organization culture and ICT infrastructure: F@tih project schools vs. the others. Egitim ve Bilim [Education and Science], 41(188), 83–98.
Barili, F., Parolari, A., Kappetein, A. P., & Freemantle, N. (2018). Statistical primer: Heterogeneity, random- or fixed-effects model analyses? Interactive CardioVascular and Thoracic Surgery, 27(3), 317–321.
Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator–mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51(6), 1173–1182.
Barton, E. A., & Dexter, S. (2020). Sources of teachers' self-efficacy for technology integration from formal, informal, and independent professional learning. Educational Technology Research and Development, 68(1), 89–108.
Bass, B. M., & Riggio, R. E. (2006). Transformational leadership (2nd ed.). Psychology Press.
Baylor, A. L., & Ritchie, D. (2002). What factors facilitate teacher skill, teacher morale, and perceived student learning in technology-using classrooms? Computers & Education, 39(4), 395–414.
Becker, B. J. (2005). Failsafe N or file‐drawer number. Publication bias in meta‐analysis: Prevention, assessment and adjustments, 111-125.
Becker, B. J. (2009). Model-based meta-analysis. The handbook of research synthesis and meta-analysis, 2, 377–395.
Becker, H. J. (1999). Internet use by teachers: Conditions of professional use and teacher-directed student use (Vol. 1). Center for Research on Information Technology and Organizations, the University of California, Irvine and the University of Minnesota.
*Berkovich, I. (2026). The dual increasing-reducing effects of principals' digital instructional leadership on teacher burnout in online teaching mediated by teacher self-efficacy and collective efficacy. International Journal of Educational Management.
Bollen, K. A. (1989a). A new incremental fit index for general structural equation models. Sociological Methods & Research, 17(3), 303–316.
Bollen, K. A. (1989b). Structural equations with latent variables. John Wiley & Sons.
Borenstein, M., Cooper, H., Hedges, L., & Valentine, J. (2009). Effect sizes for continuous data. The handbook of research synthesis and meta-analysis, 2, 221–235.
Borenstein, M., Hedges, L. V., Higgins, J. P. T., & Rothstein, H. R. (2021). Introduction to meta-analysis (2nd ed.). John Wiley & Sons.
Borko, H. (2004). Professional development and teacher learning: Mapping the terrain. Educational Researcher, 33(8), 3–15.
*Bowman, M. A., Vongkulluksn, V. W., Jiang, Z., & Xie, K. (2022). Teachers’ exposure to professional development and the quality of their instructional technology use: The mediating role of teachers’ value and ability beliefs. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 54(2), 188–204.
Bozeman, W. C., & Spuck, D. W. (1991). Technological competence: Training educational leaders. Journal of Research on Computing in Education, 23(4), 514–529.
Brockmeier, L. L., Sermon, J. M., & Hope, W. C. (2005). Principals' relationship with computer technology. NASSP Bulletin, 89(643), 45–63.
Brown, G. T. L. (2004). Teachers' conceptions of assessment: Implications for policy and professional development. Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice, 11(3), 301–318.
Burić, I., Jakšić, K., & Balaž, B. (2024). Teacher self-efficacy and teaching quality: A three-wave longitudinal investigation. International Journal of Psychology, 59(6), 1317–1325.
Cai, H., Dong, H., Li, X., & Wong, L.-H. (2023). Does teachers' intention translate to actual usage? Investigating the predictors of K-12 teachers' usage of open educational resources in China. Sustainability, 15(2), 1027.
*Chaaban, Y., & Ellili-Cherif, M. (2017). Technology integration in EFL classrooms: A study of Qatari independent schools. Education and Information Technologies, 22.
Chang, I. H. (2003). Assessing the dimensions of principals' effective technology leadership: An application of structural equation modeling. Educational Policy Forum, 6(1), 111–141.
Chang, I. H. (2012). The effect of principals' technological leadership on teachers' technological literacy and teaching effectiveness in Taiwanese elementary schools. Educational Technology & Society, 15(2), 328–340.
Chang, I. H., Chin, J. M., & Hsu, C.-M. (2008). Teachers' perceptions of the dimensions and implementation of technology leadership of principals in Taiwanese elementary schools. Educational Technology & Society, 11(4), 229–245.
Chen, M., Liu, Y., Li, Z., & Li, Y. (2022). Promoting teacher information literacy from a principal's perspective based on intermediate chain analysis. Education and Information Technologies, 27, 13067–13087.
Chen, S. Y., Hung, C. Y., Chang, Y. C., Lin, Y. S., & Lai, Y. H. (2018). A study on integrating augmented reality technology and game-based learning model to improve motivation and effectiveness of learning English vocabulary. In 2018 1st International Cognitive Cities Conference (IC3) (pp. 24–27). IEEE.
Cheng, Y. C. (2026). Steering schools into the digital future: A serial mediation model of principal digital leadership, school digital culture, school organizational digital agility, and school digital transformation in Taiwanese secondary schools. Education and Information Technologies, 31(10), 3335–3367.
Cheung, M. W. L. (2014). Fixed- and random-effects meta-analytic structural equation modeling: Examples and analyses in R. Behavior Research Methods, 46(1), 29–40.
Cheung, M. W. L. (2015). metaSEM: An R package for meta-analysis using structural equation modeling. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, Article 1521.
Cheung, M. W. L. (2018). Issues in solving the problem of effect size heterogeneity in meta-analytic structural equation modeling: A commentary and simulation study on Yu, Downes, Carter, and O'Boyle (2016). Journal of Applied Psychology, 103(7), 787–803.
Cheung, M. W. L., & Chan, W. (2005). Meta-analytic structural equation modeling: a two-stage approach. Psychological methods, 10(1), 40.
Chin, W. W. (1998). The partial least squares approach to structural equation modeling. In G. A. Marcoulides (Ed.), Modern methods for business research (pp. 295–336). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Cil, O., & Akcay, A. O. (2025). A mixed method quasi-experimental study on transforming preservice teachers' mathematics anxiety and teaching self-efficacy beliefs. Journal of Mathematics Teacher Education, 28(1), 179–209.
Clarke, D., & Hollingsworth, H. (1994). Reconceptualising teacher change. In G. Bell, B. Wright, N. Leeson, & J. Geake (Eds.), Challenges in mathematics education: Constraints on construction (Vol. 1, pp. 153–164). Mathematics Education Research Group of Australasia.
Clarke, D., & Hollingsworth, H. (2002). Elaborating a model of teacher professional growth. Teaching and Teacher Education, 18(8), 947–967.
Cochran-Smith, M., & Lytle, S. L. (2009). Inquiry as stance: Practitioner research for the next generation. Teachers College Press.
Cohen, J. (1992). A power primer. Psychological Bulletin, 112(1), 155–159.
Çolpan Güngördü, D., & Yıldırım, Z. (2025). An online community of practice for teacher professional development on technology integration as cognitive tools in mathematics teaching. Education and Information Technologies, 30(9), 12213–12247.
Cooper, H. M. (1982). Scientific guidelines for conducting integrative research reviews. Review of Educational Research, 52(2), 291–302.
Costello, R. W. (1997). The leadership role in making the technology connection. T.H.E. Journal, 25, 58–62.
Cuban, L. (1986). Teachers and machines: The classroom use of technology since 1920. Teachers College Press.
Darling-Hammond, L., Hyler, M. E., & Gardner, M. (2017). Effective teacher professional development. Learning Policy Institute.
Dasruth, J., & Naicker, S. R. (2026). Conceptualising a school leaders' digital leadership framework to lead Education 4.0 in a South African school district. SAGE Open, 16(2), 1–22.
*David, C. V., Costescu, C. A., & Roșan, A. M. (2023). Factors that support technology integration practices in the math education of children with intellectual disabilities. Children, 10(6), 918.
Davis, F. D. (1989). Perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and user acceptance of information technology. MIS Quarterly, 13(3), 319–340.
Day, C. (2002). Developing teachers: The challenges of lifelong learning. Routledge.
Deeks, J. J., Higgins, J. P., Altman, D. G., & Cochrane Statistical Methods Group. (2019). Analysing data and undertaking meta‐analyses. Cochrane handbook for systematic reviews of interventions, 241-284.
Dellinger, A. B., Bobbett, J. J., Olivier, D. F., & Ellett, C. D. (2008). Measuring teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs: Development and use of the TEBS-Self. Teaching and Teacher Education, 24(3), 751–766.
Dempsey, D. (1999). The principal push for technology. High School Magazine, 7, 30–33.
DerSimonian, R., & Laird, N. (1986). Meta-analysis in clinical trials. Controlled Clinical Trials, 7(3), 177–188.
Deryakulu, D., & Olkun, S. (2009). Technology leadership and supervision: An analysis based on Turkish computer teachers' professional memories. Technology, Pedagogy and Education, 18(1), 45–58.
Desimone, L. M. (2009). Improving impact studies of teachers' professional development: Toward better conceptualizations and measures. Educational Researcher, 38(3), 181–199.
Dexter, S. (2011). School technology leadership: Artifacts in systems of practice. Journal of School Leadership, 21(2), 166–189.
Dexter, S., & Barton, E. A. (2021). The development and impact of team-based school technology leadership. Journal of Educational Administration, 59(3), 367–384.
Dexter, S., & Richardson, J. W. (2020). What does technology integration research tell us about the leadership of technology? Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 52(1), 17–36.
Dooley, K. E. (1998). Change facilitation and implementation: A model for school diffusion of computer technology and telecommunications. Planning and Changing, 29(3), 173–186.
Eccles, J. S., Adler, T. F., Futterman, R., Goff, S. B., Kaczala, C. M., Meece, J. L., & Midgley, C. (1983). Expectancies, values, and academic behaviors. In J. T. Spence (Ed.), Achievement and achievement motives: Psychological and sociological approaches (pp. 75–146). W. H. Freeman.
Elliot, J. (1978). Characterizing reflective inquiry: Towards a theory of reflective practice. Australian Educational Researcher, 25(3), 1–21.
Ellis, P. D. (2010). The essential guide to effect sizes: Statistical power, meta-analysis, and the interpretation of research results. Cambridge University Press.
Enochs, L. G., & Riggs, I. M. (1990). Further development of an elementary science teaching efficacy belief instrument: A preservice elementary scale. School Science and Mathematics, 90(8), 694–706.
Ertmer, P. A. (1999). Addressing first- and second-order barriers to change: Strategies for technology integration. Educational Technology Research and Development, 47(4), 47–61.
Ertmer, P. A., & Ottenbreit-Leftwich, A. T. (2010). Teacher technology change: How knowledge, confidence, beliefs, and culture intersect. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 42(3), 255–284.
Espinosa, C. F., Jr., & Quines, L. A. (2025). School climate, leadership competency, and self-efficacy in technology among teachers: A path model on attitude towards technology in public elementary schools. European Journal of Education Studies, 12(2).
Esplin, N. L., Stewart, C., & Thurston, T. N. (2018). Technology leadership perceptions of Utah elementary school principals. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 50(4), 305–317.
Fadia, O. (2023). School Principal’s Technology Practices and Its Effect on Teacher’s Technology Integration (Doctoral dissertation, Indiana University of Pennsylvania).
Farahian, M., & Salari, M. (2026). Beyond technical skills: Reimagining EFL teacher development through mindfulness, metacognition, and engagement for TPACK transformation. International Journal of Technology and Educational Innovation, 12(1), 72–89.
Ferguson, C. J. (2009). An effect size primer: A guide for clinicians and researchers. Professional psychology: Research and practice, 40(5), 532–538.
Flanagan, L., & Jacobsen, M. (2003). Technology leadership for the twenty-first century principal. Journal of Educational Administration, 41(2), 124–142.
Fullan, M. (2007). The new meaning of educational change (4th ed.). Teachers College Press.
Fullan, M., & Hargreaves, A. (1991). What's worth fighting for? Working together for your school. Ontario Public School Teachers' Federation.
Fütterer, T., Scheiter, K., Cheng, X., & Stürmer, K. (2022). Quality beats frequency? Investigating students' effort in learning when introducing technology in classrooms. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 69, 102042.
Ghavifekr, S., & Wong, S. Y. (2022). Technology leadership in Malaysian schools: The way forward to education 4.0–ICT utilization and digital transformation. International Journal of Asian Business and Information Management (IJABIM), 13(2), 1-18.
Gibson, S., & Dembo, M. H. (1984). Teacher efficacy: A construct validation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 76(4), 569–582.
Glackin, M. (2019). 'It's more than a prop': Professional development session strategies as sources of teachers' self-efficacy and motivation to teach outside the classroom. Professional Development in Education, 45(3), 372–389.
Glass, G. V. (1976). Primary, secondary, and meta-analysis of research. Educational Researcher, 5(10), 3–8.
Glazer, E. M., & Hannafin, M. J. (2006). The collaborative apprenticeship model: Situated professional development within school settings. Teaching and Teacher Education, 22(2), 179–193.
Goddard, R. D., Hoy, W. K., & Hoy, A. W. (2000). Collective teacher efficacy: Its meaning, measure, and impact on student achievement. American educational research journal, 37(2), 479-507.
Granziera, H., & Perera, H. N. (2019). Relations among teachers' self-efficacy beliefs, engagement, and work satisfaction: A social cognitive view. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 58, 75–84.
Grey-Bowen, J. E. (2010). A study of technology leadership among elementary public school principals in Miami-Dade County [Doctoral dissertation, St. Thomas University].
*Gümüş, S., Kılınç, A. Ç., & Bellibaş, M. S. (2022). The relationship between teacher leadership capacity at school and teacher self-efficacy: The mediating role of teacher professional learning. School Leadership & Management, 42(5), 478–497.
Gürfidan, H., & Koç, M. (2016). The impact of school culture, technology leadership, and support services on teachers’ technology integration: A structural equation modeling. Education and Science, 41, 99-116.
Guskey, T. R. (1986). Staff development and the process of teacher change. Educational Researcher, 15(5), 5–12.
Guskey, T. R. (1988). Teacher efficacy, self-concept, and attitudes toward the implementation of instructional innovation. Teaching and Teacher Education, 4(1), 63–69.
Guskey, T. R. (2000). Evaluating professional development. Corwin Press.
Guskey, T. R. (2002). Professional development and teacher change. Teachers and Teaching, 8(3), 381–391.
Hadar, L. L., & Baharav, H. (2025). University-school partnership in education as a context for teacher professional development. International Journal of Educational Research, 133, 102693.
Hair, J. F., Risher, J. J., Sarstedt, M., & Ringle, C. M. (2019). When to use and how to report the results of PLS-SEM. European Business Review, 31(1), 2–24.
Hall, G. E., & Loucks, S. F. (1977). A developmental model for determining whether the treatment is actually implemented. American Educational Research Journal, 14(3), 263–276.
Hall, M. E. (1999). Principals can set an example in technology usage. Thrust for Educational Leadership, 29, 33.
Hallinger, P., & Heck, R. H. (1996). Reassessing the principal's role in school effectiveness: A review of empirical research, 1980–1995. Educational Administration Quarterly, 32(1), 5–44.
Hallinger, P., & Heck, R. H. (1998). Exploring the principal's contribution to school effectiveness: 1980–1995. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 9(2), 157–191.
Hamzah, F., Abdullah, A. H., & Ma, W. (2024). Advancing education through technology integration, innovative pedagogies and emerging trends: A systematic literature review. Journal of Advanced Research in Applied Sciences and Engineering Technology, 41(1), 44–63.
Hayduk, L. A. (1987). Structural equation modeling with LISREL: Essentials and advances. Johns Hopkins University Press.
Hayes, A. F. (2009). Beyond Baron and Kenny: Statistical mediation analysis in the new millennium. Communication Monographs, 76(4), 408–420.
Hayes, A. F. (2018). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach (2nd ed.). Guilford Press.
Hayes, A. F., & Preacher, K. J. (2010). Quantifying and testing indirect effects in simple mediation models when the constituent paths are nonlinear. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 45(4), 627–660.
Heath, M. K. (2017). Teacher-initiated one-to-one technology initiatives: How teacher self-efficacy and beliefs help overcome barrier thresholds to implementation. Computers in the Schools, 34(1–2), 88–106.
Hedges, L. V., & Olkin, I. (2014). Statistical methods for meta-analysis. Academic Press.
Hedges, L. V., & Vevea, J. L. (1998). Fixed-and random-effects models in meta-analysis. Psychological methods, 3(4), 486–504.
Higgins, J. P. T., Thompson, S. G., Deeks, J. J., & Altman, D. G. (2003). Measuring inconsistency in meta-analyses. BMJ, 327(7414), 557–560.
Howey, K. R., & Joyce, B. (1978). A data base for future directions in inservice education. Theory Into Practice, 17(3), 206–211.
Howey, K. R., & Vaughan, J. C. (1983). Current patterns of staff development. Teachers College Record, 84(6), 92–117.
Hsu, P. S. (2016). Examining current beliefs, practices and barriers about technology integration: A case study. TechTrends, 60(1), 30–40.
*Huang, L., Zhang, T., & Huang, Y. (2020). Effects of school organizational conditions on teacher professional learning in China: The mediating role of teacher self-efficacy. Studies in Educational Evaluation, 66, 100893.
Hudanich, N. V. (2002). Identifying educational technology leadership competencies for New Jersey's school superintendents [Doctoral dissertation, Seton Hall University].
Hughes, J., Kerr, S., & Ooms, A. (2005). Content-focused technology inquiry groups: Cases of teacher learning and technology integration. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 32(4), 367–379.
Hunde, A. B., Elstad, E., Christophersen, K.-A. A., Turmo, A., Gemeda, F. T., & Demissie, E. A. (2026). Motivational factors influencing Ethiopian student teachers' self-efficacy in adopting AI in education. Education Sciences, 16(5), 800.
Hunter, J. E., & Schmidt, F. L. (2004). Methods of meta-analysis: Correcting error and bias in research findings (2nd ed.). Sage.
Iacobucci, D. (2010). Structural equations modeling: Fit indices, sample size, and advanced topics. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 20(1), 90–98.
Ibrahim, M., & Callaway, R. (2022). Implications of flipped teaching strategy on preservice teachers' self-efficacy and intention to integrate technology in future classroom. International Journal on E-Learning, 21(1), 25–38. Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education.
Ilomäki, L., Paavola, S., Lakkala, M., & Kantosalo, A. (2016). Digital competence – an emergent boundary concept for policy and educational research. Education and Information Technologies, 21(3), 655–679.
Inan, F. A., & Lowther, D. L. (2010a). Laptops in the K-12 classrooms: Exploring factors impacting instructional use. Computers & Education, 55(2), 937–944.
Inan, F. A., & Lowther, D. L. (2010b). Factors affecting technology integration in K-12 classrooms: A path model. Educational Technology Research and Development, 58(2), 137–154.
International Society for Technology in Education. (2018). ISTE standards for education leaders. https://www.iste.org/standards/for-education-leaders
Işik, M. (2023). Investigation of school administrators' technological leadership behaviors in the context of teachers' professional development. Malaysian Online Journal of Educational Technology, 11(4), 238-257.
Işik, M. (2025). Impact of artificial intelligence and technology leadership on professional teacher development. The Journal of Educational Research, 118(6), 622–631.
Ismail, S. N., Muhammad, S., Omar, M. N., & Shanmugam, K. S. (2022). The practice of critical thinking skills in teaching mathematics: Teachers' perception and readiness. Malaysian Journal of Learning and Instruction, 19(1), 1–30.
*Ismail, S. N., Omar, M. N., & Raman, A. (2021). The authority of principals’ technology leadership in empowering teachers’ self-efficacy towards ICT use. International Journal of Evaluation and Research in Education (IJERE), 10(3), 878–885.
Jackson, P. W. (1980). Old dogs and new tricks: Observations on the continuing education of teachers. Outlook, 37, 39–52.
Jak, S., & Cheung, M. W.-L. (2020). Meta-analytic structural equation modeling with moderating effects on SEM parameters. Psychological Methods, 25(4), 430–455.
Johnson, K. E. (1996). The role of theory in L2 teacher education. TESOL Quarterly, 30(4), 765–771.
Johnson, N. (1989). Teachers and change: A literature review [Unpublished manuscript]. University of Melbourne.
Jonassen, D., Strobel, J., & Gottdenker, J. (2005). Model building for conceptual change. Interactive Learning Environments, 13(1–2), 15–37.
Juliana, N., Wahyono, H., Wardoyo, C., Utomo, S. H., & Arjanto, P. (2024). Enhancing quality education through technology adoption, well-being, commitment, and competence among educators: Implications for sustainable development goals. Journal of Lifestyle & SDGs Review, 4(3), e02106.
Zkose, T., Gurr, D., Tülübaş, T., & Kanadlı, S. (2026). What factors mediate the relationship between leadership for learning and teacher professional development? Evidence from meta-analytic structural equation modelling. Educational Management Administration & Leadership, 54(3), 907–930.
Karakose, T., Polat, H., & Papadakis, S. (2021). Examining teachers' perspectives on school principals' digital leadership roles and technology capabilities during the COVID-19 pandemic. Sustainability, 13(23), 13448.
Kaşcı, T., & Selçuk, G. (2021). Examination of classroom teachers' technological pedagogical content knowledge and teacher self-efficacy beliefs. Journal of Educational Technology & Online Learning, 4(4), 774–792.
Kaya-Kasikci, S., Zayim-Kurtay, M., & Kondakci, Y. (2023). The role of leadership in developing a climate of technology integration in public schools. Teaching and Teacher Education, 132, 104234.
Kearsley, G., & Lynch, W. (1992). Educational leadership in the age of technology: The new skills. Journal of Research on Computing in Education, 25(1), 50–60.
Kelly, J., & Cherkowski, S. (2015). Collaboration, collegiality, and collective reflection: A case study of professional development for teachers. Canadian Journal of Educational Administration and Policy, 169, 1–27.
*Kılınç, A. Ç., Polatcan, M., Atmaca, T., & Koşar, M. (2021). Teacher self-efficacy and individual academic optimism as predictors of teacher professional learning: A structural equation modeling. Education and Science, 46(205), 373–394.
Kılınç, A. Ç., Polatcan, M., Erdoğan, O., Sezgin, F., & Özdemir, S. (2025). Investigating the association between principal learning-centred leadership and teacher instructional practices: The mediating roles of teacher self-efficacy and collective teacher efficacy. Educational Studies, 51(4), 568–587.
Kim, C., Kim, M. K., Lee, C., Spector, J. M., & DeMeester, K. (2013). Teacher beliefs and technology integration. Teaching and Teacher Education, 29(1), 76–85.
Klassen, R. M., & Chiu, M. M. (2010). Effects on teachers’ self-efficacy and job satisfaction: Teacher gender, years of experience, and job stress. Journal of Educational Psychology, 102(3), 741–756.
Kline, R. B. (2023). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (5th ed.). Guilford Press.
Kopcha, T. J. (2012). Teachers' perceptions of the barriers to technology integration and practices with technology under situated professional development. Computers & Education, 59(4), 1109–1121.
Kwon, K., Ottenbreit-Leftwich, A. T., Sari, A. R., Khlaif, Z., Zhu, M., Nadir, H., & Gok, F. (2019). Teachers' self-efficacy matters: Exploring the integration of mobile computing device in middle schools. TechTrends, 63(6), 682–692.
Kyndt, E., Gijbels, D., Grosemans, I., & Donche, V. (2016). Teachers' everyday professional development: Mapping informal learning activities, antecedents, and learning outcomes. Review of Educational Research, 86(4), 1111–1150.
Labak, I., Bognar, B., & Meštrović, O. (2026). The impact of online video-based teacher professional development on instructional practices and student achievement in biology. Education Sciences, 16(1), 36.
Latip, A., Hapsari, K. S., Intani, T. K., Lubis, T. C. P., & Saputra, F. A. (2024). The influence of teacher self-efficacy on the quality of classroom learning: A systematic literature review. Jurnal Eduscience, 11(1), 11–19.
Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation. Cambridge University Press.
Le, T. T., & Pham, T. T. (2026). 'A moment of change that still matters': Reflective writing as biographical learning in Vietnamese EFL teachers' professional development. Studies in Continuing Education. Advance online publication.
Leithwood, K. A., & Riehl, C. (2003). What we know about successful school leadership. Laboratory for Student Success, Temple University.
Leithwood, K., & Jantzi, D. (2000). The effects of transformational leadership on organizational conditions and student engagement with school. Journal of Educational Administration, 38(2), 112–129.
Li, M. (2023). Chinese mathematics teachers’ TPACK and attitudes toward ICT integration in the post-pandemic era. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 19(7), em2301.
Li, S. (2023). The effect of teacher self-efficacy, teacher resilience, and emotion regulation on teacher burnout: A mediation model. Frontiers in Psychology, 14, 1185079.
Liao, Y.-K. C., & Chen, Y.-H. (2021). Integrating technology in mathematics instruction on grade school academic achievement in Taiwan: A meta-analysis. Bulletin of Educational Psychology, 52(4), 781–806.
Lichucki, M. (2013). A case study exploring the perceptions of educational technology leadership in a rural school district [Doctoral dissertation, Northcentral University].
Lieberman, A., & Pointer Mace, D. H. (2008). Teacher learning: The key to educational reform. Journal of Teacher Education, 59(3), 226–234.
Little, J. W. (1993). Teachers' professional development in a climate of educational reform. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 15(2), 129–151.
*Liu, S., & Hallinger, P. (2018). Principal instructional leadership, teacher self-efficacy, and teacher professional learning in China: Testing a mediated-effects model. Educational administration quarterly, 54(4), 501-528.
Liu, Z., Kong, X., Liu, S., Yang, Z., & Zhang, C. (2022). Looking at MOOC discussion data to uncover the relationship between discussion pacings, learners' cognitive presence and learning achievements. Education and Information Technologies.
Long, Y., & Xia, Y. (2025). Leveraging transformational and instructional leadership for teacher professional development: A dual-mediation model of teacher self-efficacy and organisational culture. Teaching and Teacher Education, 164, 105087.
Lumpe, A. T., Haney, J. J., & Czerniak, C. M. (2000). Assessing teachers' beliefs about their science teaching context. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 37(3), 275–292.
Ly, B., & Ly, R. (2026). Unpacking the e-leadership to value chain: An empirical model of co-production and digital literacy. Sustainable Futures, 11, 101730.
MacCallum, R. C., & Austin, J. T. (2000). Applications of structural equation modeling in psychological research. Annual Review of Psychology, 51, 201–226.
MacKinnon, D. P., Lockwood, C. M., & Williams, J. (2004). Confidence limits for the indirect effect: Distribution of the product and resampling methods. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 39(1), 99–128.
MacKinnon, D. P., Lockwood, C. M., Hoffman, J. M., West, S. G., & Sheets, V. (2002). A comparison of methods to test mediation and other intervening variable effects. Psychological Methods, 7(1), 83–104.
Mafratoğlu, P., Altinay, Z., Mafratoğlu, R., Koç, A., Altinay, F., & Dağli, G. (2025). Evaluation of education administrators' technological leadership competencies and their perceptions of the use of the metaverse in education. SAGE Open, 15(3), 21582440251346207.
Mah, D.-K., Groß, N., Egloffstein, M., & Prilop, C. N. (2026). Artificial intelligence in K-12 instruction: The role of teacher professional development. Smart Learning Environments, 13(1).
Mama, M., & Hennessy, S. (2010). Level of technology integration by primary teachers in Cyprus and student engagement. Technology, Pedagogy and Education, 19(2), 269–275.
*Mavi, D., Tuti, G., & Ozdemir, M. (2025). How does teacher academic optimism affect teacher self-efficacy: Mediating role of teacher professional development and teacher subjective well-being? Psychology in the Schools, 62(4), 1013–1025.
McConnell, T. J., Parker, J. M., & Eberhardt, J. (2013). Assessing teachers' science content knowledge: A strategy for assessing depth of understanding. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 24(4), 717–743.
McLaughlin, M. W., & Marsh, D. D. (1978). Staff development and school change. Teachers College Record, 80(1), 1–18.
McLeod, S., & Richardson, J. W. (2011). The dearth of technology coverage in educational leadership programs. Journal of School Leadership, 21(2), 216–240.
Meissel, K., Parr, J. M., & Timperley, H. S. (2016). Can professional development of teachers reduce disparity in student achievement? Teaching and Teacher Education, 58, 163–173.
Merchie, E., Tuytens, M., Devos, G., & Vanderlinde, R. (2018). Evaluating teachers’ professional development initiatives: Towards an extended evaluative framework. Research Papers in Education, 33(2), 143–168.
Mekolle, P. M. (2024). Management approach to leadership and teachers commitment in secondary schools in Kupe-Muanenguba Division, South West Region of Cameroon. European Journal of Educational Management, 7(4), 245–263.
Milner, H. R., & Woolfolk Hoy, A. (2003). A case study of an African American teacher's self-efficacy, stereotype threat, and persistence. Teaching and Teacher Education, 19(2), 263–276.
Mishra, P., & Koehler, M. J. (2006). Technological pedagogical content knowledge: A framework for teacher knowledge. Teachers College Record, 108(6), 1017–1054.
Moher, D., Liberati, A., Tetzlaff, J., Altman, D. G., & The PRISMA Group. (2010). Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: The PRISMA statement. International Journal of Surgery, 8(5), 336–341.
Mossafaie, M., Alibakhshi, G., & Tabrizi, H. H. (2024). Iranian EFL teachers' self-efficacy: Structural equation modeling of the consequences. Asian-Pacific Journal of Second and Foreign Language Education, 9(1), 42.
Mouza, C. (2009). Does research-based professional development make a difference? A longitudinal investigation of teacher learning in technology integration. Teachers College Record, 111(5), 1195–1241.
Müller, V. P., & Zheng, L. (2024, June). Can Success be Planned?-China's Path to Technology Leadership in Green Electricity and Hydrogen and its Implications for Europe and the United States. In 2024 20th International Conference on the European Energy Market (EEM) (pp. 1–8). IEEE.
Murphy, D. T., & Gunter, G. A. (1997). Technology integration: The importance of administrative support. Educational Media International, 34(3), 136–139.
Murray, E., Leonard, H. S., & Bonaccorso, V. D. (2025). Teacher growth through professional development centered on the teaching for robust understanding framework. Education Sciences, 15(1), 1–17.
Musid, N. A., Matore, M. E. E. M., & Hamid, A. H. A. (2023). Communication significance in digital leadership: Does it matter? International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 13(5),1257–1264.
Muspawi, M., Daryono, D., & Nasution, I. (2025). School principals' perceptions of continuous teacher professional development: A grounded theory study. Qualitative Research Journal. Advance online publication.
Nur, H., Amiruddin, A., Idkhan, A. M., Aqsha, I., & Setialaksana, W. (2026). Integrated leadership and teacher satisfaction: The mediating role of professional development and collaboration in Indonesian vocational high schools. Educational Management Administration & Leadership. Advance online publication.
OECD. (2015). Students, computers and learning. making the connection. PISA. OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264239555-en
OECD. (2019). Education at a Glance 2019: OECD Indicators. OECD Publishing.
*Omar, M. N., & Ismail, S. N. (2020). Mobile technology integration in the 2020s: The impact of technology leadership in the Malaysian context. Universal Journal of Educational Research, 8(5), 1874–1883.
Omar, M. N., & Ismail, S. N. (2021). Empowering teacher self-efficacy on ICT: How does technology leadership play a role? Malaysian Online Journal of Educational Management, 9(3), 1–22.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. (2015). Students, computers and learning: Making the connection. OECD Publishing.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. (2019). Education at a glance 2019: OECD indicators. OECD Publishing.
Page, M. J., McKenzie, J. E., Bossuyt, P. M., Boutron, I., Hoffmann, T. C., Mulrow, C. D., Shamseer, L., Tetzlaff, J. M., Akl, E. A., Brennan, S. E., Chou, R., Glanville, J., Grimshaw, J. M., Hróbjartsson, A., Lalu, M. M., Li, T., Loder, E. W., Mayo-Wilson, E., McDonald, S., ... Moher, D. (2021). The PRISMA 2020 statement: An updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ, 372.
*Pambudi, D. I., Suyatno, S., Wantini, W., Patimah, L., Mardati, A., & Nurfirdaus, N. (2024). The mediating role of meaning in work in promoting teachers' technology integration. Frontiers in Education, 9, 1455669.
Pelgrum, W. J., & Plomp, T. (1991). The Use of Computers in Education Worldwide: Results from a Comparative Survey in 18 Countries.
Perkmen, S., & Sürmelioğlu, Y. (2016). Measurement of teachers' self-efficacy and outcome expectations for technology integration in education. Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology, 12, 88–94.
Petko, D., Prasse, D., & Cantieni, A. (2018). The interplay of school readiness and teacher readiness for educational technology integration: A structural equation model. Computers in the Schools, 35(1), 1–18.
Postholm, M. B. (2008). Teachers developing practice: Reflection as key activity. Teaching and Teacher Education, 24(7), 1717–1728.
Potjanajaruwit, P. (2023). The influence of technology leadership on university lecturers integrating technology in Thailand. Human Technology, 19(3), 435-452.
Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F. (2008). Asymptotic and resampling strategies for assessing and comparing indirect effects in multiple mediator models. Behavior Research Methods, 40(3), 879–891.
Preacher, K. J., & Selig, J. P. (2012). Advantages of Monte Carlo confidence intervals for indirect effects. Communication Methods and Measures, 6(2), 77–98.
*Qian, M., & Yan, C. (2026). How technology integration beliefs influence Chinese teachers' diversified assessment practices: The chain mediating roles of digital teaching self-efficacy and technology integration practices. European Journal of Education, 61(1), e70437.
Raman, A., & Thannimalai, R. (2019). Importance of technology leadership for technology integration: Gender and professional development perspective. SAGE Open, 9(4).
Raman, A., Thannimalai, R., & Ismail, S. N. (2019). Principals' technology leadership and its effect on teachers' technology integration in 21st century classrooms. International Journal of Instruction, 12(4), 423–442.
Rasdiana, Nurhadi, T., Akbar B., M. I., Salim, F. A., Novitasari, A. T., Cholidah, R. N., Susanto, K., Ma'rifatin, S., Rawe, N. S. H. A., Paranoan, C. A. C., Sartika, R. P., Kadju, M. D. P., & Habibah, L. B. (2024a). The effect of digital leadership in nurturing teachers' innovation skills for sustainable technology integration mediated by professional learning communities. Journal of Infrastructure, Policy and Development, 8(10), Article 8480.
Rasdiana, Wiyono, B. B., Imron, A., Rahma, L., Arifah, N., Azhari, R., ... & Maharmawan, M. A. (2024b). Elevating teachers’ professional digital competence: synergies of principals’ instructional e-supervision, technology leadership and digital culture for educational excellence in digital-savvy era. Education Sciences, 14(3), 266.
*Ravandpour, A. (2019). The relationship between EFL teachers' continuing professional development and their self-efficacy: A structural equation modeling approach. Cogent Psychology, 6(1), 1568068.
Richardson, J. W., Watts, J. L. D., & Sterrett, W. L. (2021). Challenges of being a digitally savvy principal. Journal of Educational Administration, 59(3), 318–334.
Ritter, J. M., Boone, W. J., & Rubba, P. A. (2001). Development of an instrument to assess prospective elementary teacher self-efficacy beliefs about equitable science teaching and learning (SEBEST). Journal of Science Teacher Education, 12(3), 175–198.
Robinson, B. (2008). Using distance education and ICT to improve access, equity and the quality in rural teachers' professional development in western China. International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 9(1), 1–17.
Rosenthal, R. (1979). The "file drawer problem" and tolerance for null results. Psychological Bulletin, 86(3), 638–641.
Rosenthal, R. (1986). Meta-analytic procedures for social science research Sage Publications: Beverly Hills, 1984, 148 pp. Educational Researcher, 15(8), 18–20.
Rotter, J. B. (1966). Generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement. Psychological monographs: General and applied, 80(1), 1–28.
Ryan, R. (2016). Cochrane consumers and communication group reviews: Meta-analysis. Cochrane handbook for systematic reviews of interventions.
Samancioglu, M., Baglibel, M., & Erwin, B. J. (2020). Effects of distributed leadership on teachers' job satisfaction, organizational commitment and organizational citizenship. Pedagogical Research, 5(2), em0052.
Sancar, R., Atal, D., & Deryakulu, D. (2021). A new framework for teachers’ professional development. Teaching and Teacher Education, 101, 103305.
Sang, G., Valcke, M., van Braak, J., & Tondeur, J. (2010). Student teachers' thinking processes and ICT integration: Predictors of prospective teaching behaviors with educational technology. Computers & Education, 54(1), 103–112.
Sanz Trigueros, F. J., & Guillen Diaz, C. (2016). Foreign Languages' Teacher Self-Efficacy, from a Strategic and Operational Identification Device of Their Professionalization and Professional Development. PORTA LINGUARUM, (26), 93-107.
Scharber, C., Peterson, L., Baskin, K., Cabeen, J., Gustafson, D., & Alberts, J. (2021). A research-practice partnership about k12 technology integration: Technology as a catalyst for teacher learning through failure and creative risk-taking. TechTrends, 65(4), 626-635.
Scherer, R., Siddiq, F., & Tondeur, J. (2019). The technology acceptance model (TAM): A meta-analytic structural equation modeling approach to explaining teachers' adoption of digital technology in education. Computers & Education, 128, 13–35.
Schermelleh-Engel, K., Moosbrugger, H., & Müller, H. (2003). Evaluating the fit of structural equation models: Tests of significance and descriptive goodness-of-fit measures. Methods of Psychological Research Online, 8(2), 23–74.
Schmeltzer, T. (2001). Training administrators to be technology leaders. Technology and Learning, 21(11), 16–22.
Schmidt, L., Apergi, M., Eicke, L., & Weko, S. (2024). Who believes in green growth? Strategic framing and technology leadership in the UNFCCC negotiations. Climate Policy, 24(2), 177-192.
Shaw, H., Ellis, D. A., & Ziegler, F. V. (2018). The Technology Integration Model (TIM): Predicting the continued use of technology. Computers in Human Behavior, 83, 204–214.
Sheninger, E. (2014). Digital leadership: Changing paradigms for changing times. Corwin Press.
Shepel, E. N. L. (1995). Teacher self-identification in culture from Vygotsky's developmental perspective. Anthropology & Education Quarterly, 26(4), 425–442.
Sims, S., Fletcher-Wood, H., O'Mara-Eves, A., Cottingham, S., Stansfield, C., Goodrich, J., Van Herwegen, J., & Anders, J. (2025). Effective teacher professional development: New theory and a meta-analytic test. Review of Educational Research, 95(2), 213–254.
Skaalvik, E. M., & Skaalvik, S. (2007). Dimensions of teacher self-efficacy and relations with strain factors, perceived collective teacher efficacy, and teacher burnout. Journal of Educational Psychology, 99(3), 611–625.
Skaalvik, E. M., & Skaalvik, S. (2010). Teacher self-efficacy and teacher burnout: A study of relations. Teaching and Teacher Education, 26(4), 1059–1069.
Smith, M. L., & Glass, G. V. (1977). Meta-analysis of psychotherapy outcome studies. American Psychologist, 32(9), 752–760.
Sobel, M. E. (1982). Asymptotic confidence intervals for indirect effects in structural equation models. Sociological Methodology, 13, 290–312.
Sparling, P. B. (1980). A meta-analysis of studies comparing maximal oxygen uptake in men and women. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 51(3), 542–552.
Spillane, J. P. (2005). Distributed leadership. The Educational Forum, 69(2), 143–150. Taylor & Francis Group.
Srivastava, A. P., & Joshi, Y. (2018). Examining the role of technology leadership on knowledge sharing behaviour. International Journal of Knowledge Management, 14(4), 13–29.
Sterne, J. A. C., Sutton, A. J., Ioannidis, J. P. A., Terrin, N., Jones, D. R., Lau, J., Carpenter, J., Rücker, G., Harbord, R. M., Schmid, C. H., Tetzlaff, J., Deeks, J. J., Peters, J., Macaskill, P., Schwarzer, G., Duval, S., Altman, D. G., Moher, D., & Higgins, J. P. T. (2011). Recommendations for examining and interpreting funnel plot asymmetry in meta-analyses of randomised controlled trials. BMJ, 343, d4002.
Sujo-Montes, L., & Gallagher, L. (2011). School, Technology. Technology Leadership for School Improvement, 167.
Tabaldo, S., & Ireland, A. L. (2026). Experiencing the shift: How experiential blended learning professional development enhances teacher self-efficacy. Journal of Catholic Education, 29(1), 105–124.
Tahir, L. M., Hassan, R., Rosli, M. S., Aziz, N. A., & Abdullah, N. J. (2025). Development and validation of a digital leadership instrument for Malaysian primary school principals. Asian Journal of University Education, 21(3), 918–935.
Tanucan, J. C. M., Negrido, C. V., Uytico, B. J., & Wider, W. (2023). Socio-demographic determinants of Filipino school leaders' digital leadership. International Journal of Education and Practice, 11(4), 871–885.
*Thannimalai, R., & Raman, A. (2018). The influence of principals' technology leadership and professional development on teachers' technology integration in secondary schools. Malaysian Journal of Learning and Instruction, 15(1), 203–228.
Theodorio, A. O. (2024). Examining the support required by educators for successful technology integration in teacher professional development program. Cogent Education, 11(1), 2298607.
Thien, L. M., & Yeap, S. B. (2025). Configuring effects of learning-centred leadership in promoting teacher professional learning and teacher self-efficacy. Educational Management Administration & Leadership, 53(6), 1549–1576.
Thomas, L. G. (1991). Providing technology leadership for restructured schools. Journal of Research on Computing in Education, 24(2), 265–279.
Thoonen, E. E. J., Sleegers, P. J. C., Oort, F. J., Peetsma, T. T. D., & Geijsel, F. P. (2011). How to improve teaching practices: The role of teacher motivation, organizational factors, and leadership practices. Educational Administration Quarterly, 47(3), 496–536.
Thormann, J., & Anderson, M. (1991). Taking action: Ideas to promote technology integration. U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement, Educational Resources Information Center.
Tichy, N. M., & Ulrich, D. O. (1984). SMR Forum: The leadership challenge—A call for the transformational leader. Sloan Management Review, 26(1), 59–68.
Timperley, H. S. (2005). Distributed leadership: Developing theory from practice. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 37(4), 395–420.
Tollefson, N. (2000). Classroom applications of cognitive theories of motivation. Educational Psychology Review, 12, 63-83.
Tondeur, J., Van Braak, J., Sang, G., Voogt, J., Fisser, P., & Ottenbreit-Leftwich, A. (2012). Preparing pre-service teachers to integrate technology in education: A synthesis of qualitative evidence. Computers & education, 59(1), 134-144.
Tondeur, J., Scherer, R., Baran, E., Siddiq, F., Valtonen, T., & Sointu, E. (2019). Teacher educators as gatekeepers: Preparing the next generation of teachers for technology integration in education. British Journal of Educational Technology, 50(3), 1189-1209.
Tschannen-Moran, M., & Hoy, A. W. (2001). Teacher efficacy: Capturing an elusive construct. Teaching and teacher education, 17(7), 783-805.
Tschannen-Moran, M., & Hoy, A. W. (2007). The differential antecedents of self-efficacy beliefs of novice and experienced teachers. Teaching and teacher Education, 23(6), 944-956.
Tschannen-Moran, M., Hoy, A. W., & Hoy, W. K. (1998). Teacher efficacy: Its meaning and measure. Review of educational research, 68(2), 202-248.
Turan, S. (2020). Technological leadership of school principals during the COVID-19 period. Milli Egitim, 49(1), 175–199.
U.S. Department of Education. (2002). Enhancing education through technology: Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 2001. https://www2.ed.gov/policy/elsec/leg/esea02/pg34.html
Valentine, J. C., Pigott, T. D., & Rothstein, H. R. (2010). How many studies do you need? A primer on statistical power for meta-analysis. Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics, 35(2), 215-247.
Valtonen, T., Kukkonen, J., Kontkanen, S., Sormunen, K., Dillon, P., & Sointu, E. (2015). The impact of authentic learning experiences with ICT on pre-service teachers' intentions to use ICT for teaching and learning. Computers & Education, 81, 49-58.
Valtonen, T., López-Pernas, S., Saqr, M., Vartiainen, H., Sointu, E. T., & Tedre, M. (2022). The nature and building blocks of educational technology research. Computers in Human Behavior, 128, 107123.
Valtonen, T., Sointu, E. T., Mäkitalo-Siegl, K., & Kukkonen, J. (2015). Developing a TPACK measurement instrument for 21st century pre-service teachers. Seminar.net, 11(2).
van Rooij, E. C. M., Fokkens-Bruinsma, M., & Goedhart, M. (2019). Preparing science undergraduates for a teaching career: Sources of their teacher self-efficacy. The Teacher Educator, 54(3), 270–294.
Vázquez-Cano, E. (2026). From autonomy to digital leadership: Multilevel pathways to school improvement in OECD education systems. Educational Management Administration & Leadership. Advance online publication.
Venkatesh, V., Morris, M. G., Davis, G. B., & Davis, F. D. (2003). User acceptance of information technology: Toward a unified view. MIS Quarterly, 27(3), 425–478.
Villegas-Reimers, E. (2003). Teacher professional development: An international review of the literature. UNESCO International Institute for Educational Planning.
Viswesvaran, C., & Ones, D. S. (1995). Theory testing: Combining psychometric meta-analysis and structural equations modeling. Personnel Psychology, 48(4), 865–885.
Vongkulluksn, V. W., Xie, K., & Bowman, M. A. (2018). The role of value on teachers' internalization of external barriers and externalization of personal beliefs for classroom technology integration. Computers & Education, 118, 70–81.
Voogt, J., Erstad, O., Dede, C., & Mishra, P. (2013). Challenges to learning and schooling in the digital networked world of the 21st century. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 29(5), 403–413.
Voogt, J., Fisser, P., Pareja Roblin, N., Tondeur, J., & van Braak, J. (2013). Technological pedagogical content knowledge – a review of the literature. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 29(2),109–121.
Wang, L., Ertmer, P. A., & Newby, T. J. (2004). Increasing preservice teachers' self-efficacy beliefs for technology integration. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 36(3), 231–250.
Wang, Y. (2025). The effect of perceived organizational fairness on the endogenous motivation of university teachers' professional development: A study of the mediating role of trust and organizational identification. PLoS ONE, 20(1), e0317445.
*Wei, L. M., Piaw, C. Y., & Kannan, S. (2016). Relationship between principal technology leadership practices and teacher ICT competency. MOJEM: Malaysian Online Journal of Educational Management, 4(3), 13-36.
Weißenfels, M., Benick, M., & Perels, F. (2021). Can teacher self-efficacy act as a buffer against burnout in inclusive classrooms? International Journal of Educational Research, 109, 101794.
Welsh, J., Harmes, J. C., & Winkelman, R. (2011). Florida's technology integration matrix. Principal Leadership, 12(2), 69–71.
Weng, C.-H., & Tang, Y. (2014). The relationship between technology leadership strategies and effectiveness of school administration: An empirical study. Computers & Education, 76, 91–107.
Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–value theory of achievement motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 68–81.
Wilson, M. L. (2023). The impact of technology integration courses on preservice teacher attitudes and beliefs: A meta-analysis of teacher education research from 2007–2017. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 55(2), 252–280.
Wood, F. H., & Thompson, S. R. (1980). Guidelines for better staff development. Educational Leadership, 37(5), 374–378.
Woodcock, S., & Hardy, I. (2025). Teacher self-efficacy, inclusion and professional development practices: Cultivating a learning environment for all. Professional Development in Education, 51(5), 890–904.
Wright, S. (1921). Systems of mating. I. The biometric relations between parent and offspring. Genetics, 6(2), 111–123.
Wu, B., Yu, X., & Hu, Y. (2019). How does principal e-leadership affect ICT transformation across different school stages in K-12 education: Perspectives from teachers in Shanghai. British Journal of Educational Technology, 50(3), 1210–1225.
*Xin, Y., Hamid, A. H. A., & Mansor, A. N. (2025). Digital leadership and behavioral adaptation in higher education: Examining teachers' digital competency and teaching performance. Environment and Social Psychology, 10(11), Article 4229.
Xiong, X. B., Cao, S., Gao, T., Xu, G. Y., Feng, X., & Li, H. (2026). AI and digital leadership among Chinese kindergarten principals: A case study of Guangxi. Early Childhood Education Journal, 54(5), 4095–4111.
Xu, C., Hania, A., & Waqas, M. (2025). Guiding the digital generation: Role of principals’ leadership, ICT competence, and teacher professional competence in fostering digital citizenship among university students. Education and Information Technologies, 30(1), 1165-1189.
Yahşi, Ö., & Hopcan, S. (2021). Reviewing the structural relationship among the technology leadership, technostress and technology acceptance of school administrators. Anemon Muş Alparslan Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 9(6), 1781–1797.
Yan, J., & Dai, X. (2026). The mediating role of professional self-concept in how teacher professional development influences rural physical education teachers' work engagement: A moderated mediation analysis. Frontiers in Psychology, 17, 1767900.
Yang, Q., Alias, B. S., & Mohd Nor, M. Y. (2025). Principals' technology leadership and teachers' ICT integration: A systematic review on capacity building for quality improvement and sustainable education. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 24(9), 211–234.
Yang, Y.-F., Tseng, C.-C., & Lai, S.-C. (2024). Enhancing teachers' self-efficacy beliefs in AI-based technology integration into English speaking teaching through a professional development program. Teaching and Teacher Education, 144, 104582.
Yee, D. L. (2000). Images of school principals' information and communications technology leadership. Journal of Information Technology for Teacher Education, 9(3), 287–302.
Yucesoy, Y., & Dağlı, G. (2019). Evaluation of the studies on technology leadership: A content analysis. Near East University Online Journal of Education, 2(1), 58–68.
Zee, M., & Koomen, H. M. Y. (2016). Teacher self-efficacy and its effects on classroom processes, student academic adjustment, and teacher well-being: A synthesis of 40 years of research. Review of Educational Research, 86(4), 981–1015.
Zee, M., de Jong, P. F., & Koomen, H. M. Y. (2024). The relational side of teachers' self-efficacy: Assimilation and contrast effects of classroom relational climate on teachers' self-efficacy. Journal of School Psychology, 103, 101297.
Zeng, Y., Wang, Y., & Li, S. (2022). The relationship between teachers' information technology integration self-efficacy and TPACK: A meta-analysis. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 1091017.
Zhang, Y., Adams, D., & Cheah, K. S. L. (2023). Technology leadership for schools in the twenty-first century. In D. Adams (Ed.), Educational leadership: Contemporary theories, principles, and practices (pp. 151–165). Springer Nature Singapore.
*Zhang, Z., Adams, D., & Lee, K. C. S. (2022). The relationship between technology leadership and teacher ICT competency in higher education. Education and Information Technologies, 27(7), 10285-10307.
Zhang, Y., Cheah, K. S. L., & Adams, D. (2022, May). The relationship between technology leadership and technology-enhanced teaching and learning engagement in higher education. In Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Distance Education and Learning (pp. 286-291).
Zhang, Y., Chen, D., & Xu, J. (2025). The relationship between faculty members' perceptions of technology leadership and their technology integration into higher education—Evidence from China. British Educational Research Journal, 51(6), 2837–2870.
*Zhou, X., Padrón, Y., Waxman, H. C., Baek, E., & Acosta, S. (2024). How do school climate and professional development in multicultural education impact job satisfaction and teaching efficacy for STEM teachers of English learners? A path-analysis. International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 22(2), 447–468.
Zhu, R., Alias, B. S., Hamzah, M. I. M., & Wahab, J. A. (2025). Teacher technology usage, a catalyst for principal digital leadership practice. International Journal of Evaluation and Research in Education, 14(2), 1227–1234.
Zvereva, E. (2023). Digital ethics in higher education: Modernizing moral values for effective communication in cyberspace. Online Journal of Communication and Media Technologies, 13(2), e202319.