本研究旨在探討前導組織(advance organizer)教學對國中生英文聽力理解的影響。關於前導組織的實證研究為數眾多，其中不少分別針對圖像類(pictorial)及文字類(verbal)前導組織對聽力促進、閱讀習得之效用做探討，未見有研究將兩類前導組織的效用一起比較。因此，本實驗採用此兩類前導組織，經量化研究方法，探究「圖像語境線索」(Pictorial Contextual Cues)及「文字語境關鍵」(Verbal Contextual Keys) 對國中生觀看無字幕英語發音影片時聽力理解的影響。
研究對象為台灣北部一所國立高中之國中部三年級三個班的八十七位學生，三個班級皆採常態分班，經隨機指定為兩實驗組及一對照組。實驗歷時四個禮拜，實驗前對三組受試者施以前測—GEPT中級聽力測驗—以得知受試者個別的英文聽力程度。實驗後讓受試者填寫一態度問卷，以得知受試者對前導組織的看法及感想。實驗時，觀看教學影片前，兩個實驗組及一個對照組分別接受「圖像語境線索」(Pictorial Contextual Cues)、「文字語境關鍵」(Verbal Contextual Keys)及「無實驗處理」(No treatment)，前導組織教學後隨即觀看一個約五分鐘長的無字幕英語教學影片(instructional video)。影片觀看後，三組受試者隨即接受研究者根據影片聽力內容自編的測驗，以得知受試者的理解程度。如此的實驗過程重複三次，四個禮拜後，根據三個聽後測驗的結果進行統計分析，本研究主要發現
如下：(1)整體而言，「圖像語境線索」與「文字語境關鍵」分別對國中生觀看無字幕英文教學影片的聽力理解是有幫助的；(2)整體而言，「圖像語境線索」與「文字語境關鍵」對國中生觀看無字幕英文教學影片的聽力理解，兩者間的效用並無顯著差異；(3)大部分受試者對前導組織教學在英文聽力理解的幫助持正向態度，認為前導組織有助於英文聽力理解；(4)相較於「圖像語境線索」，較多受試者願意再接受「文字語境關鍵」前導組織教學的幫助。最後，研究者認為雖額外準備教材需花費許多時間、精力，但能讓學生經由前導組織的幫助，在影片教學中習得“真實語言(real language)”，不僅能藉此促進學生的學習動機，也能讓英文聽力訓練更加有趣、多變。

This study is to investigate the effects of the two advance organizers—pictorial contextual cues and verbal contextual keys—on students’ English listening comprehension. There were many empirical studies examining the effects of pictorial or verbal advance organizers respectively. However, based on the researcher’s literature review, effects of these two distinct types of advance organizers have not been compared. Hence, the researcher intended to find out if the two advance organizers—pictorial contextual cues and verbal contextual keys—facilitate students’ English listening comprehension on watching video clips without captions.

There were 87 9th-grade participants, divided into two experimental groups and one control group, receiving pictorial contextual cues, verbal contextual keys, and no treatment. In the beginning, all participants received a test, i.e. the listening comprehension section of General English Proficiency Test (GEPT) intermediate level. Then, the three groups received their respective treatments in three consecutive weeks. Each time after the treatments, participants watched a 5-minute video clip and took a listening test on the content they just heard. After viewing the three video clips, on the fourth week, participants filled out an attitude questionnaire to express their perceptions of advance organizers. Analyzing the results of the three listening tests and the questionnaire, the researcher found that both groups receiving advance organizers significantly outscored the control group. However, there was no significant difference between the two advance organizers. As for students’ attitude,
more than half of all the participants agreed on the effectiveness of the two advance organizers. Yet, more students in the Verbal Contextual Keys group held positive attitude on receiving the advance organizer again.
Though designing or preparing advance organizers and selecting suitable authentic/instructional video materials may take teachers much extra time and energy, students could be motivated when they learned the “real language.” Moreover, English listening training could be more interesting and diverse.

Anderson, Richard C. (1977). The notion of schemata and the educational enterprise: general discussion of the conference. In Richard C. Anderson, Rand J. Spiro, and William E. Montague (Eds.), Schooling and the acquisition of knowledge (pp. 415-431). Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates
Anderson, A., & Lynch, T. (1988). Listening. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Apitz, Anja. (2008). The effects of multimedia advance organizers on comprehending
authentic German video. MN: University of Iowa. Retrieved from the ProQuest
database. (UMI No. 3340233).
Ausubel, D. P. (1960). The use of advance organizers in the learning and retention of
meaningful verbal material. Journal of Educational Psychology, 51, 267-272.
Ausubel, D. (1963). The Psychology of Meaningful Verbal Learning. New York: Grune & Stratton.
Ausubel, D., Hanesian, H, & Novak, J. (1978). Educational Psychology: A Cognitive View (2nd Ed.). New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
Bacon, S. M. (1989). Listening for real in the foreign-language classroom. Foreign Language Annals, 22(6), 543-551.
Beck, I. L., Omanson, R. C., & McKeown, M. G. (1982). An instructional redesign of reading lessons: Effects on comprehension. Reading Research Quarterly, 17, 462-481.
Bennett, A. D. (2012). The effects of two pre-listening activities—vocabulary instruction and brainstorming—on listening comprehension (Master's thesis).
Retrieved from http://ndltd.ncl.edu.tw/cgi-bin/gs32/gsweb.cgi/?o=book&s=id=%22100NTHU5094003%22.&searchmode=basic#result
Bromley, K., Irwin-DeVitis, & Modlo, M. (1995). Graphic organizers. New York: Scholastic Professional Books.
Brown, D. H. (2007). Teaching by principles: An interactive approach to language pedagogy. White Plains, NY: Longman.
Chapple, L. & A. Curtis (2000). Content-based instruction in Hong Kong: Student
responses to film. System, 28(3), 419-433.
Chung, J. (1999). The effects of using videotexts supported with advance organizer and captions on Chinese college students’ listening comprehension: An empirical study. Foreign Language Annals, 32, 295-308.
Chung, J-M. (2002). The effects of using two advance organizers with video texts for
the teaching of listening in English. Foreign Language Annals, 35(2), 231-241.
Chung, J-M. & Huang, S-C. (1998). The effects of the three aural advance organizers
for video viewing in a foreign language classroom. System, 26(4), 553-565.
Cooper, R., M. Lavery, & Rinvolucri, M. (1991). Video. Oxford: Oxford University Press
Davis, Patricia M. (1991).Cognition and learning: A review of the literature with
reference to ethnolinguistic minorities. Dallas, TX: Summer Institute of
Linguistics.
Davidson, K. F. (2009). The effects of using video advance organizers on listening performance and the learning of culture in the elementary foreign language classroom. Retrieved from http://pid.emory.edu/ark:/25593/19588
Elkhafaifi, H. (2005). The effect of prelistening activities on listening comprehension
in Arabic learners. Foreign Language Annals, 38(4), 505-513.
Fischbein, E., & Grossman, A. (1997). Schemata and intuitions in combinatorial reasoning. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 34, 27-47.
Fischbein, E. (1999). Intuitions and schemata in mathematical reasoning. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 38, 11-50.
Gil-Garcia, A., Villegas, J. (2003). Engaging minds, enhancing comprehension and
constructing knowledge through visual representations. Retrieved from ERIC database. (ED480131)
Haskins, William A. (1983-1984). The art of listening. Litigation, 10, 46. Retrieved
from:http://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?collection=journals&handle=hein.journals/laba10&div=80&id=&page=
Hassard, J. (2005). 2.10 Meaningful learning model. In the art of teaching science. Retrieved from:http://scied.gsu.edu/hassard/mos 2.10.html.
Hayes, D. A., & Henk, W. A. ( 1986). Understanding and remembering complex prose augmented by analogical and pictorial illustration. Journal of Reading Behavior, 18, 63-78.
Herron, C. A., Hanley, J. E. B., & Cole, S. P. (1995). A comparison study of two advance organizers for introducing beginning foreign language students to video. Modern Language Journal, 79, 387-395.
Herron, C., Cole, S.P., York, H., Linden, P. (1998). A comparison study of student retention of foreign language video: Declarative versus interrogative advance organizer. Modern Language Journal. 82(2), 237-247.
Herron, C., Corrie, C., Cole, S. P. & Henderson, P. (1999b). Do prequestioning
techniques facilitate comprehension of French video? The French Review, 72(6),
1076-1090.
Herron, C., Corrie, C., Dubreil, S., Cole, S. P. (2002). A classroom investigation: Can video improve intermediate-level French language students' ability to learn about a foreign culture? Modern Language Journal, 86(1), 36-53.
Hsu, P. C. (2009). The effects of advance organizer instruction accompanying video viewing on junior high school students’ listening comprehension (Unpublished master's thesis). National Chung Cheng University, Taiwan.
Jeremy Cross (2009). Effects of listening strategy instruction on news videotext comprehension. Language Teaching Research, 13(2), 151-176.
Jordan, R. R (1997). English for academic purposes: A guide and resource for teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Kilickaya. F. (2004). Authentic materials and cultural content in EFL classrooms. The
Internet TESL Journal, 10 (7). Retrieved from
http://iteslj.org/Techniques/Kilickaya-AutenticMaterial.html
Kim, D. (2000). A qualitative approach to the authenticity in the foreign language classroom: a study of university students learning English in Korea. Texas Papers in Foreign Language Education, 5 (1), 189-205.
Kirkman, G., & Shaw, E. L. (1997). Effects of an oral advanced organizer on immediate and delayed retention. Paper presented at the 26th Annual Meeting of Mid-South Education Research Association (MSERA), Memphis, TN.
Kramsch, C. & R. W. Andersen (1999). Teaching text and context through multimedia. Language Learning & Technology, 2(2), 31-42.
Lewis, E. H. (1986). A Comparison of the effects of an advance organizer and
simplified readability of science material on science achievement in the biology
laboratory. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.
Li, Bi-Jyun. (2009). The effect of pre-listening activities on the EFL listening
comprehension of junior high school students (Unpublished master’s thesis).
National Taiwan University of Science and Technology.
Lund R. J. (1991). A comparison of second language listening and reading comprehension. The Modern Language Journal, 75, 196-204.
Mayer, R. (2003). Learning and Instruction. New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc.
McNeill, A. (1994). What makes authentic materials different? The case of English language materials for educational television. Papers presented at the Annual International Language in Education Conference, Hong Kong.
Miller, M. (2005). Improving aural comprehension skills in EFL, using authentic materials: an experiment with university students in Nigata, Japan (Unpublished master’s thesis). University of Surrey, Australia.
Mendelson, D. J. (1984). There ARE strategies for listening. TEAL Ossasional Papers, 8, 63-76.
Meyer, R. (1984). “Listen my children, and you shall hear…” Foreign Language Annals, 17, 343-344.
Mayer, R. E. (2003). The promise of multimedia learning: using the same instructional design methods across different media. Learning and Instruction, 13(2), 125-139.
Morley, J. (2001). Aural comprehension instruction: Principles and practice. In M. Celce-Murcia, Teaching English as a second or foreign language (3rd ed.) (pp. 69-85). Boston: Heinle & Heinle.
Newton, J. (2009). Teaching ESL/EFL listening and speaking. New York and London: Routledge.
Nunan, D. (1997). Listening in language learning. The Language Teacher, 23 (9), 47-51.
O’Malley, M., Chamot, A. U., and Küpper, L. (1989). Listening Comprehension Strategies in Second Language Acquisition. Applied Linguistics, 10 (4), 418-437.
Oxford, R. L. (1993). Research update on teaching listening. System, 21, 205-211.
Peeck, J. (1974). Retention of pictorial and verbal content of a text with illustrations. Journal of Educational Psychology, 66, 880-888.
Peterson, P.W. (2001). Skills and strategies for proficient listening. In Celce-Murcia, M. (Ed.), Teaching English as a second or foreign language (pp. 87-100). Boston: Heinle & Heinle.
Piaget, J. (1971, 1967). Biology and knowledge. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Piaget, J. (1980). Experiments in contradiction. Chicago and London: University of
Chicago Press.
Rivers, W. (1981). Teaching foreign-language skills. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Rost, M. (2002). Teaching and researching listening. Harlow, UK: Longman.
Rubin, J. (1994). A review of second language listening comprehension research.
Modern Language Journal, 78, 199-211.
Sherman, J. (2003). Using Authentic Video in the Language Classroom. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Stanovich, K.E. (1980). Toward an interactive-compensatory model of individual
differences in the development of reading fluency. Reading Research Quarterly,
16, 32-71.
Stempleski, Susan. (1987). Short Takes: Using Authentic Video In the English Class.
Paper presented at the 21st Annual Meeting of the International Association of Teachers of English as a Foreign Language, Westende, Belgium.
Stempleski, S. (1992). Teaching communication skills with authentic video. In S. Stempleski & P. Arcario (Eds.), Video in second language teaching: Using, selecting, and producing video for the classroom (pp. 7-24). Alexandria, VA: Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages, Inc.
Swaffar, J & Vlatten, A. (1997). A sequential model for video viewing in the foreign
language curriculum. Modern Language Journal, 81(2), 175-188.
Swift, S. (2007). Teaching Listening: Top-down or Bottom-up? Retrieved from:
http://eltnotebook.blogspot.tw/2007/02/teaching-listening-top-down-or-bottom.html
Talavan, N. (2007). Using subtitles in a multimedia environment to enhance listening
comprehension for foreign language students of English. Proceedings of the VI
International AELFE Conference. Lisboa: ISCAL(pp. 452-458).
Tang, C. Y. (2012). The effect of advance organizers applied to story instruction on listening comprehension in the fourth graders (Unpublished master’s thesis). National Taipei University of Education.
The Northeast Texas Network Consortium Coordinating Office. (2002). NETnet Creating Advance Organizers. Retrieved from http://www.netnet.org/instructors/design/goalsobjectives/advance.htm
Thompson, I. (1995). Assessment of second/foreign language listening comprehension. In D. J. Mendelsohn & J. Rubin (Eds.), A Guide for the teaching of second language listening (pp. 31-58). San Diego, CA: Dominie Press.
Thompson, I. & Rubin, J. (1996). Can strategy instruction improve listening comprehension? Foreign Language Annals, 29, 331-342.
Townsend & Clarihew. (1989). Facilitating children's comprehension through the use of advance organizers. Journal of Reading Behavior, 21(1), 15-35.
Tsui, A. & Fullilove, J. (1998). Bottom-up or top-down processing as a discriminator of L2 listening performance. Applied Linguistics, 19 (4), 432-451.
Tsui, Chu-jung. (2005). Advance organizers with video instruction on industrial vocational high school students’ listening comprehension (Unpublished master’s thesis). National Chengchi University, ETMA.
Van Rossum, J.H.A. (1990). Schmidt’s schema theory: The empirical base of the variability of practice hypothesis. Human Movement Science, 9, 387-435.
Vandergrift. (2010). Teaching L2 learners how to listen does make a difference: an empirical study. Language Learning, 60 (2), 470–497.
Weaver, C. (1972). Human Listening: Processes and behavior. New York: Bobbs-Merrill.
Widdowson, H. (1990). Aspects of Language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Widmayer, S. A. (1999). Schema Theory: an introduction. Retrieved from: http://www.mrjthompson.com/Documents/SchemaTheory.pdf
Wilberschied, L. & Berman, P. M. (2004). Effect of using photos from authentic video as advance organizers on listening comprehension in an FLES Chinese class. Foreign Language Annals, 37(4), 534-543.
Yuill, N., & Joscelyne, T. (1988). Effect of organizational cues and strategies on good and poor comprehenders' story understanding. Journal of Educational Psychology, 80, 152-158.