此篇論文以非洲諸國之自身角度出發，探討中國於當地之政府及民間日益擴張的影響力，並闡述當地公私部門間的相互影響，從而歸結出政府及民間不同的回應方式。筆者力引中國於非洲最大的兩大夥伴—南非及奈及利亞作為例證，並探討兩國深具影響力的紡織業糾紛。在此糾紛中深受影響的諸國，原先有著相同的動機，卻產生了不同的反應。南非及奈及利的例子，說明了民間組織扮演的角色，有著決定性的因素，甚至將影響政治層面，其中尤以勞工團體為甚。此外，政府及民間的互動，兩者間的合作抑或競逐程度，也是關鍵所在。與其將非洲大陸視為一個整體，不如逐一探討特定國家及中國的雙邊關係，及各國境內民間利益團體的角色，如此一來，將有助於了解更多中國於非洲拓展影響力的細節，並歸結出關於此議題更廣泛的論述。

This work looks into the factors of state, civil society, and the relation between the two to explain the discrepancy of the responses of African countries to China’s growing presence on the continent from the perspective of the African countries themselves. The research focusses on Nigeria and South Africa, China’s largest import partners in Africa, in the context of the textile dispute that affected most African nations. The textile dispute pressed the same incentives on all African countries that were affected, yet still they were divided in their reactions. The cases of Nigeria and South Africa show that answer to this riddle lies in the degree to which civil society groups, particularly labour unions, can make the issue salient for politics. Moreover, another key aspect is the degree to which the relation between civil society and the state allows the former to gain the compliance of the latter by invoking incentives that derive from the cooperative aspect of the relation, rather than only the confrontational aspect of it. The implication for the wider China in Africa debate is that instead of viewing China-Africa relations in the context of the continent as a whole, more attention should be paid to the details of the bilateral relations between China and specific African countries and the role that the arrangement of domestic interest groups in said African countries plays in formulating African responses to China.

Abdullahi, Funso. (11 October 2002). Nigeria: For Textile Industry, It’s a Rescue Operation. (This Day). Retrieved from http://allafrica.com/stories/200210110152.html

Abiodun, Eromosele. (7 March 2016). Nigerians to Spend N27.5 Billion on Imported Textiles by Q4 2016. (This Day). Retrieved from http://allafrica.com/stories/201603070483.html

Adewale, Murtala. (27 September 2017). Nigeria: Kano, Chinese Company Sign $600 Million Deal on Textile Hub. (The Guardian). Retrieved From http://allafrica.com/stories/201709270041.html

Agbaje, Adigun. (1993). “Beyond the State: Civil Society and the Nigerian Press under Military Rule.” Media, Culture and Society 15: 455-472.

Aja, Kalu. (30 January 2017). How Can We Save the Textile Mills? (Business Day). Retrieved from http://www.businessdayonline.com/can-save-textile-mills/

Akinwale, Akeem A. (January 2011). Labour Reform and Industrial Conflicts Mismanagement in Nigeria.
(The Sixth IIRA African Regional Congress of Industrial Relations Presentation Paper). Retrieved from https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/8365/edf06f11e834905602490bbe1738df5c92c6.pdf

Ahmad, Romoke W. (16 September 2016). Nigeria: Kwara Partners Chinese Company on Establishment of Textile Park. (Daily Trust). Retrieved From http://allafrica.com/stories/201609160876.html

Alden, Chris. (2007). China in Africa. London: Zed Books.

Alden, Chris and Wu, Yu-Shan. (August 2014). South Africa and China: The Making of a Partnership. (South African Institute of International Affairs Occasional Paper 199). Retrieved from https://www.africaportal.org/documents/12604/saia_sop_199_GPA_alden__wu_20141006.pdf.

Aminu, Mohammed. (11 December 2017). Nigeria: Fighting Smuggling in the North. (This Day). Retrieved from http://allafrica.com/stories/201712110027.html

ANC. (2005). Statement on COSATU’s Jobs and Poverty Campaign. (African National Congress Press Statements). Retrieved from http://www.anc.org.za/content/statement-cosatus-jobs-and-poverty-campaign

Anyagafu, Vera Samuel. (11 January 2016). Africa: China’s New Ideas, Policies for Nigeria, Africa. (Vanguard). Retrieved from http://allafrica.com/stories/201601120013.html

Aremu Mni, Issa. (2016). How (Not) to Engage with China. (National Union of Textile Garment and Tailoring Workers of Nigeria). Retrieved from http://nutgtwn.org/?p=1021

Awowole, Francis and Ekechukwu, Lovender. (24 January 2005). Nigeria: Consolidate Bank of Industry-Textile Workers. (Daily Champion). Retrieved from http://allafrica.com/stories/200501240772.html

Bankole, Abiodun S.; Babatunde, Musibau Adetunji; and Kilishi, Abdlhakeem A. (2014). “Trade Policy, Consumer Preference and the Performance of Textile Industry: A Case Study Ilorin, North Central Nigeria.” International Journal of Commerce and Management 24 (3): 243-256.

Bello, Ismail. (2017). Trade Unions in Transformation: A Case Study of the National Union of Textile Garment and Tailoring Workers of Nigeria. (Friedrich Ebert Stiftung). Retrieved from https://www.fes.de/gewerkschaften/common/pdf/2017_paper_on_textile_workers_Nigeria_draft_EN.pdf

Bowen, Glenn A. (2009). “Document Analysis as a Qualitative Research Method.” Qualitative Research Journal 9(2): 27-40.

Bradley, Alison. (2016). “China and South Africa: emerging Powers in an Uncomfortable Embrace.” Journal of Contemporary China Vol. 25(102): 881-892.

Bratton, Michael. (1989) “Beyond the State: Civil Society and Associational Life in Africa.” World Politics 41(3): 407-430.

Brautigam, Deborah. (2009). The Dragon’s Gift: The Real Story of China in Africa. Oxford: Oxford university Press.

Brink, Gustav. (October 2006). The memorandum of understanding on quotas and clothing imports from China: Who wins? (Tralac Working Paper No. 17.) Retrieved from http://www.paulroos.co.za/wp-content/blogs.dir/12/files/2011/uploads/20061024_Brink_SouthAfrica-Chinaclothing_quotas.pdf

Broadman, Harry G. (2008). “Chinese-African Trade and Investment: The Vanguard of South-South Commerce in The Twenty-First Century.” In Robert I. Rotberg (Ed.), China into Africa: Trade, Aid, and Influence. (pp. 87-108). Washington D.C.: Brookings Institution Press.

Brooks, Andrew; Simon, David. (2012). “Unravelling the Relationships between Used-Clothing Imports and the Decline of African Clothing Industries.” Development and Change 43 (6): 1265-1290.

Bryman, Alan. (2012). Social Research Methods. Fourth Edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Business in Africa. (30 June 2005). South Africa: Chinese Imports Affect SA Clothing Industry. Retrieved from http://allafrica.com/stories/200506300352.html

Cherry, Janet. (2006). “Workers and Policy-Making.” In Sakhela Buhlungu (Ed.), Trade Unions and Democracy: Cosatu Worker’s Political Attitudes in South Africa. (pp. 143-166). Cape Town: Huma Sciences Research Council.

Cherry, Janet and Southall, Roger. (2006). “Union Democracy, Parliament Democracy, and the 2004 Elections.” In Sakhela Buhlungu (Ed.), Trade Unions and Democracy: Cosatu Worker’s Political Attitudes in South Africa. (pp. 75-96). Cape Town: Huma Sciences Research Council.

Chidaushe, Moreblessings. (2007). “China’s Grand Re-Entrance into Africa – Mirage or Oasis?” In Firoze Manji and Stephen Marks (Eds.), African Perspectives on China in Africa. (pp. 107-118). Oxford: Fahamu.

Cohen, Jean L. and Arato, Andrew. (1997). Civil Society and Political Theory. London: MIT Press.

COSATU. (2006). China – Africa Trade Agreements. (Congress of South African Trade Unions Press Statements). Retrieved from http://www.cosatu.org.za/show.php?ID=1096

COSATU. (2005). COSATU Western Cape Province Media Statement on The Rampant Job Losses and Lack of Employment. (Congress of South African Trade Unions Press Statements). Retrieved from http://www.cosatu.org.za/show.php?ID=1147

COSATU. (2006). COSATU Urges Clothing Retailers to Co-Operate with Government. Congress of South African Trade Unions. (Congress of South African Trade Unions Press Statements). Retrieved from http://www.cosatu.org.za/show.php?ID=1092

COSATU. (2003). Resolutions of the COSATU 8th National Congress. (Congress of South African Trade Unions Resolutions). Retrieved from http://www.cosatu.org.za/docs/resolutions/2003/resolutions8th.pdf

Daily Trust. (27 June 2015). Nigeria: NACCIMA Kicks Against Revocation of Textile Ban. Retrieved from http://allafrica.com/stories/201506292073.html

Daramola, Adeola. (27 September 2004). Nigeria: From China with Fakes. (The News). Retrieved from http://allafrica.com/stories/200409200958.html

Duncan, Jane. (October 2003). Another Journalism is Possible: Critical Challenges for the Media in South Africa. (Freedom of Expression Institute Presentation Paper). Retrieved from http://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/wolpe2.pdf

Ewepu, Gabriel. (19 March 2018). Nigeria: Cotton Farmers Accuse China over Collapse of Textile Industries. (Vanguard). Retrieved from http://allafrica.com/stories/201803190502.html

Gbadamosi, Ayantunji and Oniku, Ayodele C. (2009). “The Strategic Implication of China’s Economic Pacts with Sub-Saharan African Countries: The Case of Nigeria.” Conference of the International Journal of Arts and Sciences 1(18): 115-130.

Habid, Adam. (2005) “State-Civil Society Relations in Post-Apartheid South Africa.” Social Research 72(3): 671-692.

Hantrais, Linda. (1995). “Comparative Research Methods.” Social Research Update 13. Accessed at http://sru.soc.surrey.ac.uk/SRU13.html

Herman, Fanie. (2011). “Textile Disputes and Two-Level Games: The Case and South Africa.” Asian Politics & Policy 3(1): 115.

Hicks, Alexander M.; Janoski, Thomas; and Schwarz, Mildrad A. (2005). “Political Sociology in the New Millennium.” In Thomas Janoski et al. (Eds.), The Handbook of Political Sociology: States, Civil Societies, and Globalization. (pp. 1-30). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Ikelegbe, Augustine O. (2013). The State and Civil Society in Nigeria: Towards a Partnership for Sustainable Development. (Centre for Population and Environmental Development Report No. 7). Retrieved from https://www.africaportal.org/documents/15630/CPED_Monograph_Series_No._7-The_State_and_Civil_Society.pdf

Ikhouria, Edwin. (2010). “The Impact of Chinese Imports on Nigerian Traders.” In by Axel Harneit-Sievers, Stephen Marks, and Sanusha Naidu (Eds.), Chinese and African Perspectives on China in Africa. (pp. 128-138). Oxford: Pambazuka Press.

Ikome, Francis. (2010). “The Role and Place of the African Union in the Emerging China-Africa Partnership.” In Axel Harneit-Sievers, Stephen Marks, and Sanusha Naidu (Eds.), Chinese and African Perspectives on China in Africa. (pp. 201-212). Oxford: Pambazuka Press.

Iloani, Francis Arnize. (12 June 2017). Nigeria-China Trade Imbalance Hits N6 Trillion in 4 Years. (Daily Trust). Retrieved from http://allafrica.com/stories/201706120705.html

Imisim, Etim. (14 April 2004). Nigeria: Import Prohibitions: What to Do with the Textile Industry. (This Day). Retrieved from http://allafrica.com/stories/200404140207.html

Jenkins, R. and Edwards, Lawrence. (2015). “Is China ‘Crowding Out’ South African Exports of Manufactures?” European Journal of Development Research 27(5): 903-920.

Jiang, Wenran. (2008). “China’s Emerging Strategic Partnerships in Africa.” In Robert I. Rotberg (Ed.), China into Africa: Trade, Aid, and Influence. (pp. 50-64). Washington D.C.: Brookings Institution Press.

Jones, Gillian. (26 June 2005). COSATU ‘Barking Up the Wrong Tree’. (Mail & Guardian). Retrieved from https://mg.co.za/article/2005-06-26-cosatu-barking-up-the-wrong-tree

Kazaure, Musa Umar. (13 November 2002). Nigeria: Imports Kill Local Industries, Laments Textile Dealer. (Daily Trust). Retrieved from http://allafrica.com/stories/200211140050.html

Lee, Margaret C. (2014). Africa’s World Trade: Informal Economies and Globalization from Below. London: Zed Books.

Lehman, Howard P. (2008). “The Emergence of Civil Society Organizations in South Africa.” Journal of Public Affairs 8(1): 115-127.

Li, Anshan. (2008). “China’s New Policy Towards Africa.” In Robert I. Rotberg (Ed.), China into Africa: Trade, Aid, and Influence. (pp. 21-49). Washington D.C.: Brookings Institution Press.

Louw, Irene. (2005). COSATU Threatens National Strike. (Fin24 Archives). Retrieved from https://www.fin24.com/Economy/Cosatu-threatens-national-strike-20050327

Maclennan, Ben. (3 October 2005). Dispute over Support for COSATU Strike. (Mail & Guardian). Retrieved from https://mg.co.za/article/2005-10-03-dispute-over-support-for-cosatu-strike

Mail & Guardian. (27 June 2005). COSATU Says Rand Must Be Devaluated. Retrieved from https://mg.co.za/article/2005-06-27-cosatu-says-rand-must-be-devalued

Mail & Guardian. (26 May 2005). COSATU Sets Strike Date over Job Losses. Retrieved from https://mg.co.za/article/2005-05-26-cosatu-sets-strike-date-over-job-losses

Makumbe, John Mw. (1998). Is There a Civil Society in Africa? International Affairs 74(2): 305-317.

Maposa, Sipokazi. (27 June 2005). South Africa: ‘Mass Strike Could Lead to Job Losses’. (Cape Argus). Retrieved from http://allafrica.com/stories/200506270141.html

Mde, Vukani and Brown, Karima. (28 September 2005). South Africa: Cosatu to Embark on New Wave of Protests. (Business Day). Retrieved from http://allafrica.com/stories/200509280099.html

Mohammed, Yakubu. (22 September 2016). Nigeria: Buhari’s China Visit- A Post-Mortem. The Guardian. Retrieved From http://allafrica.com/stories/201609221151.html

Monare, Moshoeshoe et al. (28 June 2005). Opinion Divided on Success of COSATU Strike. (IOL News). Retrieved from https://www.iol.co.za/news/south-africa/opinion-divided-on-success-of-cosatu-strike-244911

Morris, Mike and Einhorn, Gill. (2008). “Globalisation, Welfare and Competitiveness: The Impacts of Chinese Imports on the South African Clothing and Textile Industry.” Competition & Change 12(4): 355-376.

Motlanthe, Kgalema and Vavi, Zwelinzima. (2005). Alliance statement on discussion document on clothing, textiles and footwear industry by Kgalema Motlanthe & Zwelinzima Vavi. (African National Congress on behalf of the Alliance Secretariat) Retrieved from http://www.anc.org.za/content/alliance-statement-discussion-document-clothing-textiles-and-footwear-industry-kgalema

Mudashir, Ismail and Yaya, Haruna Gimba. (9 Nobvember 2014). Nigeria; In Kano, Textile Traders Lament the Chinese. (Daily Trust). Retrieved from http://allafrica.com/stories/201411102023.html

Naumann, Eckart. (2006, April). The Multifibre Agreement – WTO Agreement on Textiles and Clothing. (Tralac Working Paper No. 4). Retrieved from http://www.tralac.org/wp-
content/blogs.dir/12/files/2011/uploads/20060518_multifibre_naumann.pdf

Nigerian Tribune. (1 June 2017). Textile Union Supports FG’s Threat to Close Land Border. Retrieved from http://www.tribuneonlineng.com/textile-union-supports-fgs-threat-close-land-border/

Nkosi, Joseph. (2006). Addresses by the COSATU 1st Deputy President, Joseph Nkosi at the SACTWU Conference. (Congress of South African Trade Unions Speeches). Retrieved from http://www.cosatu.org.za/show.php?ID=2405

Nwachuku, Levi Akalazu; Godfrey N. Uzoigwe (Eds.). (2004). Troubled Journey: Nigeria Since the Civil War. Lanham: University Press of America.

Nwokoji, Chima; Okoli, Naza; and Okoruwa, Sylvester. (25 March 2017). Is China Deliberately Flooding Lagos markets with Fake Products?
(Nigerian Tribune). Retrieved from http://www.tribuneonlineng.com/china-deliberately-flooding-lagos-markets-fake-products/

Obiorah, Ndubisi; Kew, Darren; and Tanko, Yusuf. (2008). ““Peaceful Rise” and Human Rights: China’s Expanding Relations with Nigeria.” In Robert I. Rotberg (Ed.), China into Africa: Trade, Aid, and Influence. (pp. 272-295). Washington D.C.: Brookings Institution Press.

Ojo, Emmanuel O. (2009). “Federalism and the Search for National Integration in Nigeria.” African Journal of Political Science and International Relations 3(9): 384-395.

Okafor, Obiora Chinedu. (2007). “The Precarious Place of Labour Rights and Movements in Nigeria's Dual Economic and Political Transition, 1999-2005”. Journal of African law 51(1): 68-94.

Olowu, Dele. (2005). “Local Assemblies and Local Democracy in Sub-Saharan Africa.” In M.A. Mohamed Salih (Ed.), African Parliaments: Between Governance and Government. (pp. 61-78). New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

Olukoyun, Ayo. (2004) “Media Accountability and Democracy in Nigeria, 1999-2003.” African Studies Review 47 (3): 69-90.

Otas, Belinda. (1 September 2017). Can Union Organising Help Save Nigeria’s Textile Industry? (Equal Times). Retrieved from https://www.equaltimes.org/can-union-organising-help-save

Oyelola, Femi. (18 May 2016). Why Labour Strike Failed, by Textile Workers. (Peoples Daily). Retrieved from http://www.peoplesdailyng.com/why-labour-strike-failed-by-textile-workers/

Pigato, Miria and Tang, Wenxia. (March 2015). China and Africa: Expanding Economic Ties in an Evolving Global Context. (World Bank Paper No. 95161). Retrieved from http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/241321468024314010/pdf/95161-REPLACEMENT-FILE-PUBLIC-China-FDI-Africa-conference-Final-1-May-2015-Final.pdf

Pillay, Devan. (2006). “Cosatu, Alliances and Working-Class Politics.” In Sakhela Buhlungu (Ed.), Trade Unions and Democracy: Cosatu Workers’ Political Attitudes in South Africa. (pp. 167-198). Cape Town: HSRC Press.

Premium Times. (12 June 2016). Nigeria: Kwara Secures U.S.$ 56 Million Chinese Investment –Governor Ahmed. Retrieved From http://allafrica.com/stories/201606130012.html

Prince, Natasha (3 October 2005). South Africa: Unions Expect 70% Stayaway Today. (Cape Argus). Retrieved from http://allafrica.com/stories/200510030669.html

Radebe, Hopewell (10 October 2005). South Africa: Cosatu ‘Should Rethink Its Strikes’. (Business Day). Retrieved from http://allafrica.com/stories/200510100030.html

Rainey, Stephen; Wukunuma, Kutoma; and Stahl, Bernd. (2017). “Civil Society Organizations in Research: A Literature-Based Typology.” Voluntas 28: 1988-2010.

Rangasamy, Logan, and Swanepoel, Jan Abraham. (2011). “China’s Impact on South African Trade and Inflation.” Development Southern Africa 28(1): 141-156.

Rashid, Khadijat K. (2003). “Ethnic Politics and Ethnic Conflict.” African Studies Review 46 (2): 92-98.

Remi Aiyede, E. (2003). “The Dynamics of Civil Society and the Democratization Process in Nigeria.” Canadian Journal of African Studies 37(1): 1-27.

Reporters Without Borders. (25 August 2005). State Security Service Raid Weekly and Attack Newspaper Vendors. Retrieved from https://rsf.org/en/news/state-security-service-raid-weekly-and-attack-newspaper-vendors

Reporters Without Borders. (22 March 2006). Beatings, Threats, Arrests, Unfair Dismissal, Censorship – Nigeria’s Journalists See No Improvement. Retrieved from https://rsf.org/en/news/beatings-threats-arrests-unfair-dismissal-censorship-nigerias-journalists-see-no-improvement

Reporters Without Borders. (5 February 2015). Information Increasingly a Rare Commodity in Nigeria. Retrieved from https://rsf.org/en/news/information-increasingly-rare-commodity-nigeria

Reporters Without Borders. (31 May 2017). Nigerian Reporters Under Yoke of All-Powerful Governors. Retrieved from https://rsf.org/en/news/nigerian-reporters-under-yoke-all-powerful-governors

Roberts, Simon; Thoburn, John T. (2004). “Globalization and The South African Textiles Industry: Impacts on Firms and Workers.” Journal of International Development 16(1): 125-139.

Robinson, Vicki. (30 September 2005). South Africa: Will Cosatu’s Summer Strikes Work? (Mail & Guardian). Retrieved from http://allafrica.com/stories/200509300129.html

Rocha, John. (2007). “Anew Frontier in The Exploitation of Africa’s Natural Resources: The Emergence of China.” In Firoze Manji and Stephen Marks (Eds.), African Perspectives on China in Africa. (pp. 15-34). Oxford: Fahamu.

SACTWU. (2006). SACTWU Welcomes Cutback on Clothing and Textile Imports from China. Southern African Clothing and Textile Workers Union Press Statement. Retrieved from http://www.sactwu.org.za/pr-and-news/archived-2006/76-sactwu-welcomes-cutback-on-clothing-and-textile-imports-from-china-

SACTWU. (2005). Save Jobs Coalition. Southern African Clothing and Textile Workers Union Press Statement. Retrieved from http://www.sactwu.org.za/pr-and-news/archived-2005/67-save-jobs-coalition

Seteolu, Dele, and Oshodi, Abdul-Gafar Tobi. (2017). “Oscillation of Two Giants: Sino-Nigeria Relations and the Global South.” Journal of Chinese Political Science: 1-29.

Suleiman, Abdul-Azeez. (1 November 2003). Nigeria: Crash of Textile. (Weekly Trust). Retrieved from http://allafrica.com/stories/200311030486.html

Sunday Times. (3 July 2005). COSATU Strikes Out. Retrieved from https://www.timeslive.co.za/sunday-times/lifestyle/2005-07-03-cosatu-strikes-out/

Sylvanus, Nina. (2013). “Chinese Devils, the Global Market, and the Declining Power of Togo’s Nana-Benzes.” African Studies Review 56(1): 65-80.

Tapscott, Chris. (2000). “Intergovernmental Relations in South Africa: The Challenges of Co-Operative Government.” Public Administration and Development 20: 119-128.

Tar, Usman A. (2009). The Politics of Neoliberal Democracy in Africa: State and Civil Society in Nigeria. London: Tauris Academic Studies.

This Day. (26 November 2002). Nigeria: Importation: Bane of Textile Industry. Retrieved from http://allafrica.com/stories/200211260213.html

The Guardian. (27 June 2005). South Africans Strike Nationwide. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/world/2005/jun/27/southafrica

The News. (12 April 2016). Buhari Wants Nigeria-China Trade Redressed. Retrieved from http://thenewsnigeria.com.ng/2016/04/buhari-wants-nigeria-china-trade-redressed/

The News. (5 October 2017). FG to Partner ECOWAS Countries to Fight Smuggling – Osinbajo. Retrieved from http://thenewsnigeria.com.ng/2017/10/fg-to-partner-ecowas-countries-to-fight-smuggling-osinbajo/

Thomson, Alex. (2010). An Introduction to African Politics. Third Edition. Oxon: Routledge

Tordoff, William. (1984). Government and Politics in Africa. London: Macmillan Education LTD.

Van Der Westerhuizen, Christi. (2006). Trade and Poverty: A Case Study of the SA Clothing Industry. (Trade and Poverty Project Southern Africa Labour and Development Research Unit Univeristy of Cape Town). retrieved from http://www.tips.org.za/files/trade_vanderwesthuizen.pdf

Vavi, Zwelinzima. (2005). Address by COSATU General Secretary, Zwelinzima Vavi to a Demonstration on Jobs and Poverty. (Congress of South African Trade Unions Speeches). Retrieved from http://www.cosatu.org.za/show.php?ID=1447

Wasserman, Herman. (2012). “China in South Africa: Media Responses to a Developing Relationship.” Chinese Journal of Communication 5(3): 336-354.

Wunsch, James S. (2001). “Decentralization, Local Governance and ‘Recentralization’ in Africa.” Public Administration and Development 21: 277-288.