研究背景：

自 1979 年伊朗革命以來，美國和伊朗之間始終不存在正式的外交關係。幾十年來，美國一直將伊朗視為中東的生存威脅，雙方長期存在難以化解的敵意和不信任。隨著伊拉克薩達姆•海珊政權倒台後什葉派擴張主義的出現，伊朗積極成為主要地緣政治戰略參與者，同時繼續在該地區展開恐怖主義、核子武器發展活動。 從《聯合全面行動計劃》（JCPOA）協議下，歐巴馬政府所形成的國際制裁和政治對話，乃至川普政府祭出的最大經濟制裁施壓，美國對伊朗政策不斷地受到國際、國內、個人因素之影響。

研究目的：

本論文主要分析美國歐巴馬和川普政府期間，對於伊朗外交政策所遭遇之外部和內部變數。自1979年伊朗革命及人質危機，多年以來美伊關係始終呈現敵對狀態，2015年歐巴馬政府所達成之伊朗核子計畫協議（JCPOA）被國際社會視為美伊關係之破冰。隨著2017年川普贏得美國總統大選，美國宣布撤出伊朗核武協議，重啟對於伊朗之經濟制裁，美伊雙方關係再次惡化。本研究乃旨在探討2009至 2021年美國對伊朗外交政策發生變化的原因，凸顯歐巴馬至川普政府對於伊朗態度的重大轉變。

理論架構：

本研究採用「新古典現實主義」作為理論架構，納入國際體系因素、國內政治因素和決策者知覺及評估因素，探討歐巴馬和川普政府如何各自採取不同的方法，來應對伊朗帶來的威脅和挑戰，以達到自身國家利益極大化。首先，國際體系壓力作為「自變數」，強調美國於制定伊朗政策過程中所面臨的主要外部刺激。其次，國內壓力、領導人的世界觀和對伊朗的看法，則為影響外交決策過程的「中介變數」。最後，受到外部、內部刺激之影響，美國對伊朗外交政策之形塑，則應視為「應變數」。

研究發現：

美國對伊朗外交政策的變化，往往伴隨著「體系壓力」作為主要因素。另一方面，國內政治和領導人世界觀及看法，則扮演著「次要因素」，間接性地影響美伊政策之形成。研究發現，歐巴馬和川普政府伊朗政策之顯著差異，顯示伊朗在中東影響力不斷地增長，導致區域秩序發生變化的結果。在歐巴馬政府時代，伊朗的影響力僅止於不威脅美方利益。川普執政期間，伊朗逐步擴大對於葉門、敘利亞和伊拉克的政治及軍事干預，構成美方認定之急迫性威脅。綜上所述，「外部因素」加上美國國會、遊說團體、領導者世界觀和對伊朗認知等「內部因素」，最終促使川普政府做出重大轉變，與歐巴馬政府之伊朗政策形成鮮明對比。

研究價值：

本研究之亮點在於透過「新古典現實主義」審視美伊關係之動態變化，納入國際體系、美國國會、華府決策菁英、以色列利益團體、領導人世界觀和對伊朗的看法等因素，檢視歐巴馬和川普政府，如何在美伊關係擺盪中，針對所遭遇之外部和內部刺激，形塑不同之伊朗政策，盼以提供更為全面性的觀點分析美國伊朗政策走向。

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Background

Since the 1979 Iranian revolution, there have been no formal diplomatic relations between the United States and Iran. For decades, the United States has viewed Iran as an existential threat in the Middle East with long-standing hostility and mistrust. However, with the emergence of Shia expansionism after the collapse of Saddam Hussein, Iran is becoming the major geopolitical strategy player while continuing its terrorist-related and nuclear development activities in the region. From international sanctions and political dialogues under the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA) agreement to maximum pressure, the U.S. policy for Iran has been formulated on the shifting sands of international, domestic, and individual factors.

Purpose

This dissertation analyzes U.S. foreign policy’s external and internal variables toward Iran under the Obama and Trump administrations. For decades, U.S.-Iranian relations have historically been very hostile, except for the rapprochements witnessed under the Obama administration with JCPOA nuclear deal signed in 2015. However, a significant shift was taken in the U.S. attitude toward Iran after President Trump won the presidency in 2017. It was highlighted by the withdrawal from the agreement and the re-imposition of maximum economic sanctions on Iran. Thus, this study aims to discover what brings about the changes in U.S. foreign policy toward Iran from 2009-2021.

Theoretical Approach

In this research, neoclassical realism is employed as the theoretical approach – which considers the nature of the international system, domestic politics, and the leader’s image. First, international system pressure serves as the independent variable to study the main external stimuli faced by the Obama and Trump administrations. Second, domestic pressure and leaders’ worldviews and perceptions of Iran are the intervening variables leading to the decision-making process. Last, U.S. foreign policy toward Iran is considered to be the dependent variable. To maximize the U.S. national interest, different approaches are introduced under the Obama and Trump administrations against the threats and challenges posed by Iran.

Findings

The study concludes that the change in the U.S. foreign policy toward Iran is accompanied by systemic pressure as the main factor. On the other hand, domestic politics and leaders’ worldviews and perceptions of Iran play a minor role in affecting the U.S.-Iran policy formation. In other words, a stark difference in U.S. Iran policy under Obama and Trump administrations is a result of the change in regional order with Iran’s growing influence in the Middle East. In the era of the Obama administration, Iran’s influence was limited not to threaten the American interest. During Trump’s presidency, Iran’s political and military intervention in Yemen, Syria, and Iraq has become an imminent threat to the United States. These external variables mainly contribute to the significant shift in U.S. policy toward Iran. Meanwhile, domestic pressure from both U.S. Congress and lobby groups, along with dissimilar leadership, worldviews, and perceptions of Iran, indirectly result in contrasting U.S. policies toward Iran between Obama and Trump administrations.

Value

The value of this research lies in examining the external and internal stimuli faced by the Obama and Trump administrations with different approaches to dealing with Iran between rapprochement and hostility. It gives a more comprehensive point of view to examine the dynamics of U.S-Iran relations through neoclassical realism – considering the factors of the international system, U.S. institutions, Washington elites, U.S. leaders’ ideology, worldviews, and perceptions of Iran.

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Posen, A. S. (2018). The Post-American World Economy: Globalization In The Trump Era. Foreign Affairs., 97, 28. Available at:
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Pressman, J. (2009). Power Without Influence: The Bush Administration’s Foreign Policy Failure In The Middle East. Quarterly Journal: International Security. 33(4),149-179.

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Ra'ees, W. (2010). Obama’s Afghanistan Strategy: A Policy Of Balancing The Reality WithThe Practice. Journal of Politics and Law, 3(2), 80-93.

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Rozoff, R. (2011). Bahrain: U.S. Backs Saudi Military Intervention, Conflict With Iran. Global Research, 16. Available at:
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Rubin, B. R., & Batmanglich, S. (2008). The US And Iran In Afghanistan: Policy Gone Awry. MIT Center for International Studies, 3, 2.

Ruebner, J. (2016). Obama’s Legacy On Israel/Palestine. Journal of Palestine Studies, 46(1), 50-64.

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Saltzman, I. Z. (2017). Not So “Special Relationship”? US-Israel Relations During BarackObama’s Presidency. Israel Studies, 22(1), 50-75.

Schoen, E. J. (2017). The 2007–2009 Financial Crisis: An Erosion Of Ethics: A Case Study. Journal of Business Ethics, 146(4), 805-830.

Schulenburg, R. (2019). Obama And ‘Learning’ In Foreign Policy: Military Intervention InLibya And Syria. School of Oriental and African Studies. Available at:
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Shambaugh, D. (2013). Assessing The US “Pivot” To Asia. Strategic Studies Quarterly,7(2), 10-19. Available at:
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Shankar, U. (2011). Obama’s AF-PAK Strategy And Implications For South Asia. Himalayan and Central Asian Studies, 15(1/2), 89.

Soloman, J. (2009). Obama Video Message Reaches Out To Iranians. The Wall Street Journal. Available at:
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Stokes, D. (2018). Trump, American Hegemony And The Future Of The Liberal International Order. International Affairs, 94(1), 133-150. Available at:
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Sutter, R.G., Brown, M.E., Adamson, T.J., Mochizuki., & Ollapally, D. (2013). Balancing Act: The US Rebalance And Asia-Pacific Stability. Washington, DC: Sigur Center for Asian Studies.

Tang, J. (2021). Biden’s Middle East Policy: Inheritance And Changes To Trump’s Middle East Policy. Advances in Social Science Education and Humanities Research. Available at: file:///Users/chiweiju/Downloads/125961705.pdf

Tang, J., & Pan, R. (2022). Adjustments And Constraints: Biden Administration’s Iran Policy. Asian Journal of Middle Eastern and Islamic Studies. Available at:
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/25765949.2022.2078601?journalCode=rmei20

Terrill, W. A. (2015). Iran’s Strategy For Saving Asad. Middle East Journal, 69(2), 222–236.
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Thompson, J. J. (2018). Trump’s Middle East Policy. CSS Analyses in Security Policy, 233.Available at:
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Todd Hall. (2017). On Provocation: Outrage, International Relations, And The Franco-Prussian War. Security Studies. Available at:
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Uysal, A. (2017). The Middle East In Trump’s National Security Strategy (NSS). The Center for Middle Eastern Studies (ORSAM). Available at:
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Uzun, Ö. S., & Ekşi, M. (2017). Continuities And Changes In Iran’s Foreign Policy: Analysis of Syrian Case. Bölgesel Araştırmalar Dergisi. Available at:
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Wallerstein, I. (1993). The World System After The Cold War. Journal of Peace Research, 30(1), 1-6.

Weiss, M., & Pregent, M. (2015). The US Is Providing Air Cover For Ethnic Cleansing In Iraq. Foreign Policy, 28.

Williams, P. (2016). President Obama’s Approach To The Middle East And North Africa: Strategic Absence. Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law, 48, 83.

Wright, A.,&Toosi, N. (2015). Obama War Strategy Faces Key Test In Ramadi. Politico.Available at:
https://www.politico.com/story/2015/12/obama-war-strategy-faces-key-test-in-battle-for-ramadi-217088

Yavuz, H., & Okur, M. A. (2018). Reactions Of The American Jews To Trump's JerusalemEmbassy Move: Continuation of The Historical Pattern?. Alternatives. Available at: https://www.jstor.org/stable/26727355

Reports (Think Tank / Institutions):

Ardemagni, E. (2020). The Middle East After Four Years Of Trump: A New Order In The Making. Aspenia Online International Analysis and Commentary. Available at:
https://aspeniaonline.it/the-middle-east-after-four-years-of-trump-a-new-order-in-the-making/

Azizi, H. (2021). Challenges To Iran’s Role In Iraq In The Post-Soleimani Era: Complex Rivalries, Fragmented Alliances, Declining Soft Power. German Institute For International and Security Affairs. Available at: https://www.swp-berlin.org/en/publication/challenges-to-irans-role-in-iraq-in-the-post-soleimani-era

Baron, A. (2015). Mapping The Yemen Conflict. European Council on Foreign Relations. Available at:
https://ecfr.eu/special/yemen/

Bell, M. (2020). The United States Interests And Policy Choices In The Middle East: We Didn’t Start The Fire. Atlantic Council. Available at:
https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/US-Interests-and-Policy-Choices-in-the-Middle-East.pdf

Boot, M. (2017). Trump Security Strategy A Study In Contrasts. Council On Foreign Relations. Council on Foreign Relations. Available at:
https://www.cfr.org/expert-brief/trump-security-strategy-study-contrasts

Cafiero, G., & Paraskevopoulos, A. (2019). GCC Dispute Pushes Iran And Qatar Closer But With Caveats. Atlantic Council, 17. Available at:
https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/iransource/gcc-dispute-pushes-iran-and-qatar-closer-but-with-caveats/

Campbell, K. (2008). Analyzing Iran’s Domestic Political Landscape. United States Institute of Peace. Available at:
https://www.usip.org/sites/default/files/PB-Analyzing-Iran-5-08.PDF

Carothers, T. (2007). U.S. Democracy Promotion During And After Bush. Carnegie Endowment For International Peace. Available at:
https://carnegieendowment.org/files/democracy_promotion_after_bush_final.pdf

Center, W. (2019). Timeline: The Rise, Spread, And Fall Of The Islamic State. Wilson Center. Available at:
https://www.wilsoncenter.org/article/timeline-the-rise-spread-and-fall-the-islamic-state

Devenport, K. (2020a). Timeline Of Nuclear Diplomacy With Iran. Arms Control Association. Available at:
https://www.armscontrol.org/factsheets/Timeline-of-Nuclear-Diplomacy-With-Iran

Devenport, K. (2020b). The Joint Comprehensive Plan Of Action (JCPOA) At A Glance.Arms Control Association. Available at:
https://www.armscontrol.org/factsheets/JCPOA-at-a-glance

Dent, E. (2020). US Policy And The Resurgence Of ISIS In Iraq And Syria. Middle Eastern Institute. Available at:
https://www.mei.edu/sites/default/files/202-10/US%20Policy%20and%20the%20Resurgence%20of%20ISIS%20in%20Iraq%20and%20Syria.pdf

Eineman, A. (2020). Sanctions By The Numbers: The Geographic Distribution Of US Sanctions. Center for a New American Security. Available at:
https://www.cnas.org/publications/reports/sanctions-by-the-numbers-1

Eisenstadt, M., Knights, M. & Ali, A. (2011). Iran’s Influence In Iraq Countering Tehran’s Whole-of-Government Approach. The Washington Institute for Near East Policy. Available at: https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/media/3364

Tarzi, A. (2016). Iran’s Nuclear Deal And The ‘Obama Doctrine’ – Analysis. Foreign Policy Research Institute.Available at:
https://www.fpri.org/article/2016/03/irans-nuclear-deal-obama-doctrine-analysis/

Gaston, E., & Ollivant, D. (2020). U.S.-Iran Proxy Competition In Iraq. Center on the Future of War. Arizona State University. Available at:
https://d1y8sb8igg2f8e.cloudfront.net/documents/U.S.Iran_Proxy_Competition_in_Iraq_FINAL_XZulx1C.pdf

Goldenberg, I., Schwed, J. & Thomas, K. (2019). In Dire Straits? Implications Of U.S.-Iran Tensions For the Global Oil Market. Center for a New American Security. Available at: https://www.energypolicy.columbia.edu/sites/default/files/file-uploads/SOH,%20FINAL,%2011.19.19.pdf

Hanna, A., & Nada, G. (2020). Iran’s Roster Of Influence Abroad. Wilson Center. Available at:
https://www.wilsoncenter.org/article/irans-roster-political-influence-abroad-0

Ibish, H. (2019). Warsaw Ministerial Highlights Challenges Facing Anti-Iran Coalition. The Arab Gulf States Institute in Washington. Available at:
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International Crisis Group. (2016). Exploiting Disorder: Al-Qaeda And the Islamic State. International Crisis Group. Available at:
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International Institute for Strategic Studies. (2019). Iran’s Networks of Influence in the Middle East. The International Institute for Strategic Studies.Available at:
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Khalaji, M. (2012). The Ayatollah of Rejection May Be Contemplating Comprise. The Washington Institute for Near East Policy. Available at:
https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/pdf/view/5779/en

Laub, Z. (2020). Syria’s Civil War: The Descent Into Horror. Council on Foreign Relations. Available at:
https://www.cfr.org/middle-east-and-north-africa/syria

Lister, C., & Nelson, D. (2017). All The President’s Militias: Assad’s Militiafication Of Syria. Middle East Institute.Available at:
https://www.mei.edu/publications/all-presidents-militias-assads-militiafication-syria

Lukacs, N. (2019). Obama’s Road To Cairo: The President’s Rhetorical Journey. GIGA Paper. German Institute of Global and Area Studies (GIGA). Hamburg. Available at: https://www.econstor.eu/handle/10419/196841

Lutz, C., & Crawford, N. (2013). Cost Of War Project, Iraq War: 190, 000 lives, $2.2 Trillion. Brown University’s Watson Institute for International Studies.

Mattis, J. (2018). Nuclear Posture Review. Office of the Secretary of Defense. Available at:
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NCC Staff. (2015). The Voting Math Behind The Iran Nuclear Deal In Congress. National Constitution Center. Available at:
https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/the-voting-math-behind-the-iran-nuclear-deal-in-congress

Pawlak, P. (2017). Mapping The Future Of Syria: State Of Play And Options. Policy Commons. Available at:
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Pew Research Center. (2008). Global Public Opinion In The Bush Years (2001-2008). Pew Research Center. Available at:
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Phillips, J., & Robinson, N. (2021). Iran’s Ties To Al-Qaeda. The Heritage Foundation.Available at:
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Ranking Member’s Press. (2018).Menendez Statement For The Record Reaffirming Strong U.S.-Israel Relations. United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations. Available at: https://www.foreign.senate.gov/press/ranking/release/menendez-statement-for-the-record-reaffirming-strong-us-israel-relations

Scheindlin, D. (2022). How To Salvage Progressive Policies From The Abraham Accords.The Century Foundation. Available at:
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Snyder, J. L. (1977). The Soviet Strategic Culture. Implications For Limited Nuclear Operations. The Rand Corporation. Available at:
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Tabatabai, A., & Clarke, C. (2019). Iran’s Proxies Are More Powerful Than Ever. The Rang Cooperation. Available at:
https://www.rand.org/blog/2019/10/irans-proxies-are-more-powerful-than-ever.html

The Iran Primer (2017). Trump National Security Strategy on Iran. United States Institution of Peace. Available at:
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The Heritage Foundation. (2020). Threats To U.S. Vital Interests. 2020 Index of U.S. Military Strength. Available at:
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Timofeev, I. (2019). U.S. Withdrawal From The JCPOA And Anti-Iranian Sanctions: Pros and Cons. Russian International Affairs Council. Available at:
https://russiancouncil.ru/en/analytics-and-comments/analytics/us-withdrawal-from-the-jcpoa-and-anti-iranian-sanctions-pros-and-cons/

Weybrecht, M. (2015). State Department Affirms That Iran Deal Is Only A Political Commitment. Lawfare. Available at:
https://www.lawfareblog.com/state-department-affirms-iran-deal-only-political-commitment

Williams, I., & Shaikh, S. (2020). Report: The Missile War In Yemen. Missile Defense Project. Center for Strategic & International Studies. Available at:
https://missilethreat.csis.org/report:-the-missile-war-in-yemen/

Wilson Center. (2017). Trump Administration On ISIS, Al-Qaeda. Wilson Center. Available at:
https://www.wilsoncenter.org/article/trump-administration-isis-al-qaeda

Governmental Documents （UN Reports):

Addis, C. L. (2009). Iran’s 2009 Presidential Elections. Congressional Research Service. Available at:
https://sgp.fas.org/crs/mideast/R40653.pdf

Belasco, A. (2009). Troop Levels In The Afghan And Iraq Wars, FY2001-FY2012: CostAnd Other Potential Issues. Library of Congress Washington DC Congressional Research Service.

Belasco, A. (2014). The Cost Of Iraq, Afghanistan, And Other Global War On Terror Operations Since 9/11. Congressional Review Service.

Berman, H. I. (2009). Introduction On Iran Refined Petroleum Sanctions Act. Congressional Record. Available at:
https://www.congress.gov/111/crec/2009/04/30/CREC-2009-04-30-pt1-PgE1033.pdf

Bureau of Counterterrorism. (2019). Country Reports On Terrorism 2019. U.S. Department of State. Available at:
https://www.state.gov/reports/country-reports-on-terrorism-2019/

Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs. (2020). The Abraham Accords. U.S. Department of State. Available at:
https://www.state.gov/the-abraham-accords/

Bureau of Economic, Energy and Business Affairs. (2011). Fact Sheet: ComprehensiveIran Sanctions, Accountability, And Divestment Act (CISADA). Available at:
https://2009-2017.state.gov/e/eb/esc/iransanctions/docs/160710.htm

Bush, George W. (2002a). President Delivers State Of The Union Address. The White House.Available at:
https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2002/01/20020129-11.html

Bush, George. W. (2002c). The National Security Strategy Of The United States Of America. Executive Office of The President Washington DC. Available at:
https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a406411.pdf

Carter, J. (1979). Executive Order 12170: Blocking Iranian Government Property. Iran Watch. Available at:
https://www.iranwatch.org/sites/default/files/us-wh-eo12170-111479.pdf

Country Reports on Terrorism. (2020). Bureau of Counterterrorism. U.S. Department Of State. Available at:
https://www.state.gov/reports/country-reports-on-terrorism-2020/

116th Congress. (2020). H.R. 6243- Block Iranian Access to U.S. Banks Act of 2020. Congress. Gov. Library of Congress. Available at:
https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/house-bill/6243?s=1&r=30

Dale, C., & Towell, P. (2013). In Brief: Assessing the January 2012 Defense Strategic Guidance (DSG). Library of Congress Washington DC Congressional Research Service. Available at: https://sgp.fas.org/crs/natsec/R42146.pdf

Epstein, S. B. (2013). The Budget Control Act, Sequestration, And The Foreign Affairs Budget: Background and Possible Impacts. Congressional Research Service. Available at: https://sgp.fas.org/crs/row/R42994.pdf

European Union. (2012). Council Decision 2012/35/CEFP Of 23 January 2012 Amending Decision 2010/413/CFSP Concerning Restrictive Measures Against Iran. The Council of the European Union. Available at: https://eurlex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2012:019:0022:0030:EN:PDF

Ferdinand, P. (2013). The Positions Of Russia And China At The UN Security Council In the Light of Recent Crises. Briefing Paper. Belgium: European Union. Available at:
https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/note/join/2013/433800/EXPO-SEDE_NT(2013)433800_EN.pdf

Garden, R. (2017). Statement by President Trump On The Paris Climate Accord. The White House. Available at:
https://www. whitehouse. gov/briefings-statements/statement-president-trump-paris-climate-accord/

House, W. (2015a). Remarks By The President On The Iran Nuclear Deal. Office of the Press Secretary. Available at:
https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2015/08/05/remarks-president-iran-nuclear-deal

House, W. (2015b). The Historic Deal That Will Prevent Iran From Acquiring a Nuclear Weapon. The White House. Available at:
https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/issues/foreign-policy/iran-deal

House, W. (2015c). Implementation Day: Watch The President’s Remarks On The Impact Of US Leadership In Iran. The White House. Available at:
https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/issues/foreign-policy/iran-deal

House, W. (2018). Statement From The President On The Reimposition of United States Sanctions With Respect To Iran. Statements & Releases. Available at:
https://trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov/briefings-statements/statement-president-reimposition-united-states-sanctions-respect-iran/

House, W. (2020). Peace To Prosperity: A Vision To Improve The Lives Of The Palestinian And Israeli People.The White House. Available at:
https://www. whitehouse. gov/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/Peace-to-Prosperity-0120. pdf.

H.R. 6198-119th Congress, U. S. (2005-2006). Iran Freedom Support Act. Available at:
https://www.congress.gov/bill/109th-congress/house-bill/6198/text

H.R.1191 - 114th Congress. (2015-2016): Iran Nuclear Agreement Review Act of 2015.Available at:
https://www.congress.gov/bill/114th-congress/house-bill/1191/text/pl

Iran Action Group. (2018). Outlaw Regime: A Chronicle Of Iran’s Destructive Activities.U.S. Department of State. Available at:
https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/Iran-Report.pdf

Israel Defense Forces Editorial Team. (2018). Iranian Forces Deployed in Syria. Israel Defense Forces. Available at:
https://www.idf.il/en/minisites/iran/iranian-forces-deployed-in-syria/

Jaffe, A. (2019). Iran, The Strait Of Hormuz, And The Ever-Complex Geopolitics Of Oil.Council on Foreign Relations. Available at:
https://www.cfr.org/blog/iran-straithormuz- and-ever-complex-geopolitics-oil

Jahshan, K. E., Munayyer, Y., Kuttab, J., Harb, I. K. (2020). Abbas’s Declaration: The One Accords Are Now Dead and Buried. Arab Center Washington DC. Available at: https://arabcenterdc.org/resource/abbass-declaration-the-oslo-accords-are-now-dead-and-buried/

Katzman, K. (2009). The Iran Sanctions Act (ISA). Library of Congress Washington DCCongressional Research Service. Available at:
https://www.congress.gov/bill/109th-congress/house-bill/6198/text

Katzman, K. (2009). Iran: U.S. Concerns and Policy Responses. Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service. Available at:
http://fpc.state.gov/documents/organization/125712.pdf.

Katzman, K. (2019). Iran: Internal Politics and US Policy and Options. Congressional Research Service. Washington, DC. Available at:
https://fas.org/sgp/crs/mideast/RL32048.pdf.

Katzman, K. (2019). Iran Sanctions. Washington DC: Congressional Research Service. Available at:
https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/RS/RS20871/301

Katzman, K. (2020). Iran Sanctions. Washington DC: Congressional Research Service.Available at:
https://fas.org/sgp/crs/mideast/RS20871.pdf.

Katzman, K. (2021). Iran’s Foreign And Defense Policies. Congressional Research Service Report for Members and Committees of Congress No. R4401. Available at: https://fas.org/sgp/crs/mideast/R44017.pdf.

Katzman, K. (2021). Qatar: Governance, Security, and US Policy. Congressional Research Service. Available at:
https://sgp.fas.org/crs/mideast/R44533.pdf

Katzman, K. (2022). Iran Sanctions. Washington DC: Congressional Research Service.Available at:
https://sgp.fas.org/crs/mideast/RS20871.pdf

Katzman, K., McInnis, K. J., & Thomas, C. (2019). US-Iran Conflict And Implications For US Policy. Congressional Research Service. Available at:
https://sgp.fas.org/crs/mideast/R45795.pdf

Manyin, M. E., Daggett, S., Dolven, B., Lawrence, S. V., Martin, M. F., O'Rourke, R., &Vaughn, B. (2012). Pivot To The Pacific? The Obama Administration’s ‘‘Rebalancing’’ Toward Asia. Library of Congress Washington DC Congressional Research Service. Available at:
https://sgp.fas.org/crs/natsec/R42448.pdf

Obama, B. (2009a). President Obama’s Speech In Cairo: A New Beginning. The White House. Available at:
https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/issues/foreign-policy/presidents-speech-cairo-a-new-beginning

Obama, B. (2009e). Ending The War In Iraq: An Address At Camp Lejeune. AmericanRhetoric Online Speech Bank. Camp Lejeune, North Carolina, February, 27.

Obama, B. (2010). National Security Strategy Of The United States (2010). The White House. Available at:
https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/sites/default/files/rss_viewer/national_security_strategy.pdf

Obama, B. (2011a). President Obama Has Ended The War In Iraq. The White House. Available at:
https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/blog/2011/10/21/president-obama-has-ended-war-iraq

Obama, B. (2011b). Remarks By The President On Ending The War In Iraq. White House,Washington, DC. Available at:
https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2011/10/21/remarks-president-ending-war-iraq

Obama, B (2013a). Remarks By President Obama In Address To The United Nations General Assembly. The White House. Available at:
http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2013/09/24/remarks- president-obama-address-united-nations-general-assembly

Obama, B. (2013b). State Of The Union Address. The White House. Available at:
https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/blog/2013/02/13/president-obamas-2013-state-union

Obama, B. (2014). Statement By The President On ISIL. The White House. Available at:
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Office of the Director of National Intelligence. (2021). Annual Threat Assessment Of TheU.S. Intelligence Community. Available at:
https://www.dni.gov/files/ODNI/documents/assessments/ATA-2021-Unclassified-Report.pdf

Phillips, J. (2021). Assessing Threats To U.S. Vital Interests Iran 2022 Index of U.S. Military Strength. The Heritage Foundation. Available at:
https://www.heritage.org/military

Quinn, A. (2015). Obama’s National Security Strategy: Predicting U.S. Policy In The Context Of Changing Worldviews. The Royal Institute of International Affairs. Available at: https://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/default/files/field/field_document/20150109ObamaNationalSecurityQuinn.pdf

Ripsman, N. M. (2011). Neoclassical Realism. Oxford Research Encyclopedia of International Studies. Available at:
https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190846626.013.36

Robbinson, K. (2022). What Is The Iran Nuclear Deal?. Council on Foreign Relations.Available at:
https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/what-iran-nuclear-deal

Rudolf, P. (2016). Liberal Hegemony And US Foreign Policy Under Barack Obama. German Institute for International and Security Affairs. Available at:
https://www.swp-berlin.org/publications/products/comments/2016C40_rdf.pdf

S.2799 - 111th Congress. (2009-2010). Comprehensive Iran Sanctions, Accountability, AndDivestment Act Of 2009. Available at:
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S.908 - 111th Congress. (2009-2010). Iran Refined Petroleum Sanctions Act. Available at:
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Trump, D. J. (2020a). President Donald J. Trump Brokers A Historic Peace AgreementBetween Israel And Sudan. The White House. Available at:
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Winkler, M. B. (2017). Executive Order Protecting The Nation from Foreign Terrorist EntryInto The United States: Violating First Amendment Rights Or Altering Constitutional Provisions Granting Foreign Policy Powers to the President. TM Cooley L. Rev., 34, 79. Available at:
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Mulligan, S. (2018). Withdrawal From The Iran Nuclear Deal: Legal Authorities And Implications. Congressional Research Service. Available at:
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Doctoral Dissertations and Master’s Theses:

Grzegorzewski, M. G. (2010). The Christian Zionist Lobby And US-Israel Policy. Graduate Theses and Dissertation. Available at:
http://scholarcommons.usf.edu/etd/3671

Hala, B. O. U. K. R. A. A., & Afaf, B. A. L. B. O. U. L. (2021). Trump’s Foreign Policy And Its Impacts On The US-Saudi Relations (2016-2020): Analysis Of The Political, Economic, and Military Relations. Doctoral Dissertation. University of Mohamed Boudiaf. Available at:
http://dspace.univ-msila.dz:8080//xmlui/handle/123456789/27530

Online Newspaper:

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Aljazeera. (2020). US to Sanction Leader of Lebanon’s Free Patriotic Movement: WSJ.Aljazeera. Available at:
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Alsaafin, L. (2019). Qatar Has Moved On Two Years Since Blockage, Analyst Say. Aljazeera. Available at:
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Alsubaie, S. (2022). The U.S.-Saudi Alliance Is More Important Than Ever. The National Interest. Available at:
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Arango, T., & Erdbrink, T. (2014). US and Iran Both Attack ISIS, but Try Not to Look Like Allies. New York Times, 3
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Armbruster, B. (2021). Retired Israeli General: Pushing Iran Deal Exit ‘Worst Strategic Mistake in Israel’s History’. Quincy Institute for Responsible Statecraft. Available at:
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Azizi, H. (2020). What Brought Iranian Forces to Idlib Front?. Al. Monitor. Available at:
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Başaran, E. (2015). US President Obama Slams Pro-Israel AIPAC Over Iran Nuke Deal.Daily Sabah. Available at:
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BBC News. (2017b). Qatar Crisis. What You Need To Know. BBC News. Available at:
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BBC News. (2020). Iran Attack: How Strong Is Iran’s Military?. BBC News. Available at:
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Beckwith, R. T. (2016). Read Donald Trump’s ‘America first’ Foreign Policy Speech. Time. Available at:
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Bendery, J (2013). Here Are The 15 Democratic Senators Bucking The White House And Threatening War With Iran. Huffington Post. Available at:
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Borden, E. (2016). The United States, Iran, And $1.7 Billion: Sorting Out The Details.The Brookings. Available at:
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Castiglioni, C. (2007). Obama’s Policy Toward Iran: Comparing First And Second Term. The New York Times.
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Chughtai, A. (2020). Understanding The Blockade Against Qatar. Aljazeera. Available at:
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Chulov, M. (2017). Saudi Leaders Hail Trump Visit As ‘Reset of Regional Order’. The Guardian. Available at:
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Clinton, H. (2011). America’s Pacific Century. Foreign Policy, (189), 56. Available at:
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Cremer, A. (2017). VW to Start Importing Cars To Iran In August With Partner MammutKhodro. Reuters. Available at:
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Cutter, G. (2019). The Pro-Israel Lobby, The United States, And The Iran Nuclear Deal: The Pro-Israel Lobby’s Influence On U.S. Foreign Policy. Department of Political Science and the Robert D. Clark Honors College. Available at:
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Daalder, I.H. (2016). Obama’s Foreign Policy: Not Every Global Problem Has An American Solution. The Washington Post. Available at:
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Dawsey, J., Harris, S., & DeYoung, K. (2018). Trump Calls Saudi Arabia A ‘Great Ally,’ Discounts Crown Prince’s Responsibility For Khashoggi’s Death. Washington Post. Available at:
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Dehghan, S.K. (2013). Iran: Hassan Rouhani Wins Presidential Election. The Guardian.Available at:
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Dunlop, W. (2009). Iran Offers To Swap 400 Kilos Of LEU On Kish For Atomic Fuel. The Sydney Morning Herald. Available at:
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France 24. (2019). Yemen Houthi Drones Hit Major Saudi Oil Sites, Sources Say Supplies Disrupted. France 24. Available at:
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Friedman, D. (2013). Republicans Block Chuck Hagel’s Confirmation In First Ever Filibuster Of A Defense Secretary Nominee. The New York Daily News. Available at:
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Friedman, T. L. (2015). Iran And The Obama Doctrine. The New York Times. Available at:
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Gearan, A., & Warrick, J. (2013). World Powers Reach Nuclear Deal With Iran To Freeze ItsNuclear Program. The Washington Post.

Gertz, G. (2017). What Will Trump’s Embrace Of Bilateralism For America’s Trade Partners? Brookings. Available at:
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Gilchrist, K. (2017). What Total’s $4.8 Billion Investment Means For Iran. CNBC News.Available at:
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Gordon, M. R. & Sanger, D. E. (2015). Deal Reached On Iran Nuclear Program; LimitsOn Fuel Would Lessen With Time. New York Times, 14 July 2015. Available at:
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Hamilton, D. (2011). Israel Shocked by Obama’s ‘Betrayal’ of Mubarak. Jerusalem Post. Available at:
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Hardy, R. (2010). Barack Obama Applies Carrot And Stick to Iran. BBC News. Available at:
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Hennigan, W., & Dozier., K. (2020). Iraqis Push For U.S. Troop Withdrawal In SymbolicVote. Time. Available at:
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Hoffman, G. (2018). Michael Oren: Obama Rejected Iran Green Revolution For Nuclear Deal. The Jerusalem Post. Available at:
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Hubbard., B. & Bergman, R. (2021). Warning Shots: Israel Spares Hezbollah Fighters To Avert a War. The New York Times. Available at:
https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/22/world/middleeast/israel-hezbollah-knock-on-roof.html

John, F., Gifford, L., Griffith, & M. Martin, L. (2018). Evangelicalism And Politics. The American Historian. Available at:
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Kelemen, M. & Taylor, J. (2018). Bolton Brings Hawkish Perspective To North Korean, Iran Strategy. NPR News. Available at:
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Kessler, G. (2013). President Obama And The ‘‘Red Lion’’ On Syria’s Chemical Weapons.The Washington Post, 6. Available at:
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Khamenei, A. (2020). Expulsion Of The U.S. From The Region; Iran’s Strategic Policy.English Khamenei Ir. Available at:
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Kheel, R. (2019). White House Official Promises More Iran Sanctions ‘Very Soon’. The Hill. Available at:
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Kornbluh, J. (2015). J Street Launches Multimillion Dollar Campaign In Support Of IranNuclear Deal. Ha’aretz. Available at:
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Kranish, M. (2019). Trump Said He Is Not Seeking ‘Regime Change’ in Iran. The Washington Post. Available at:
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Lake, E. (2016). Why Obama Let Iran’s Green Revolution Fail. Bloomberg. Available at:
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Landler, M. (2010). Clinton Says U.S. Is Committed To Mideast Peace But Reverting To Old Strategy. The New York Times. Available at:
https://www.nytimes.com/2010/12/11/world/middleeast/11diplo.html

Landler, M. (2013). After Near Miss On Iran, Kerry Says Diplomacy Is Still The Right Path, The New York Times, November 11, 2013. Available at:
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Lederer, E. & Lee, M. (2020). US Claims Right To Demand Iran Sanctions. Bega District News. Available at:
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Lee, M. (2018). US Cut Aid To Palestinians By More Than $200 Million. AP News. Available at:
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Liebl, V. (2019). Iran Primer – July 2019. The Center For Advanced Operational Culture Learning. Available at:
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Lindstaedt, N. (2020). In John Bolton, Donald Trump Has An Adviser Who’s Radical EvenBy Neocon Standards. The Conversation. Available at:
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Lipin, M. (2019). More European Nations Join Effort To Bypass US Sanctions On Iran. VOA News on Iran. Available at:
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Lipner, S. (2017). How Obama And Trump Left A Vacuum In The Middle East. Brookings Institution. Available at:
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Maloney, S. (2017). Under Trump, U.S. Policy On Iran Is Moving From Accommodation To Confrontation. BBC News. Available at:
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McCarthy, T., Pengelly, M.& Holmes, O. (2021). Sheldon Adelson, Casino Magnate And Major Trump Donor, Dies Ages 87. The Guardian. Available at:
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McKay, H. (2020). Behind The Final Trump Team Push For Saudi Arabia To Normalize Ties With Israel. Fox News. Available at:
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Motamedi, M. (2020). Khamenei Renews Revenge Vow As Soleimani Death Anniversary Nears. Aljazeera. Available at:
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Nasr, V. (2018). The Iran Regime-Change Crew Is Back. The Atlantic. Available at:
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Naylor, S. (2020). How John Bolton Won The War On Iran Policy. Yahoo News. Available at:
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Neuman, S., & Kennedy, M. (2020). Trump Says His Mideast Peace Plan Providers A Realistic Two-State Solution. NRP. Available at:
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NPR News. (2020). Satellite Photos Reveal Extent Of Damage From Iranian Strike On Air Base In Iraq. NPR News. Available at:
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Obama, B. (2009b). Obama Continues To Press Israel To Freeze Settlement Activity. The Washington Post. Available at:
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Obama, B. (2009c). Obama Delivers Ultimatum To Iran In Closing Speech At G20 Summit. The Guardian. Available at:
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Obama, B. (2009d). Obama Reaches Out To Iran In New Video Message. The Guardian. Available at:
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Parker, C., & Noack, R. (2020). Iran Has Invested In Allies And Proxies Across The Middle East. Here’s Where They Stand After Soleimani’s Death. The Washington Post, 3. Available at:
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Prokop, A. (2020). Dominance And Reputation: How Trump Thinks About Iran. Vox News.Available at:
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Salem, M., & Alam, H. A. (2021). Saudi Arabia And Qatar Agree To Reopen Airspace And Maritime Borders. CNN News. Available at:
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Schaer, C. (2020). US-Iran Tensions Rise In Iraq, As Qassem Soleimani Assassination Anniversary Nears. DW News. Available at:
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Schmitt, E. & Landler, M. (2019). Pentagon Officials Fear Bolton’s Actions Influence Risk of Clash With Iran. The New York Times. Available at:
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Shwayder, M. (2013). Netanyahu at UNGA: Israel Will ‘Stand Alone’ To Prevent Nuclear Iran. Jerusalem Post. Available at:
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Sofuoglu, A. (2020). Was Trump’s Maximum Pressure Campaign Against Iran Successful?. TRT World. Available at:
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