研究背景：疼痛作為一種令人不愉快的感覺與情緒經驗，其慢性化對患者帶來全面性的生心社適應挑戰，而疼痛認知更在疼痛慢性化過程中扮演重要的角色。許多研究指出，女性經歷慢性疼痛的風險較男性高、具較負面的疼痛認知，亦更常報告疼痛與其性別刻板印象中之角色責任及相關社會性傷害之關聯，顯示找出疼痛性別差異之可能社會脈絡，或為促進更具性別敏感度之臨床照顧的第一步。基於臨床觀察與文獻回顧台灣慢性疼痛患者之社會文化脈絡，本研究推論性別社會傷害、家庭性別刻板印象可能為影響其疼痛認知的因素，並提出一路徑模型，以臨床橫斷式研究探討三者之間的關係，以及對於疼痛適應結果的影響，以釐清社會性別與相關社會性傷害在患者疼痛經驗中所扮演的角色。
研究方法：本研究以北部某醫學中心疼痛門診之 113 位慢性疼痛患者為研究對象（31 位男性及 82 位女性），以性別社會傷害量表、家庭性別刻板印象量表、慢性疼痛認知量表、疼痛數字評估量尺、台灣簡明版世界衛生組織生活品質問卷作為測量工具。路徑分析部分，以結構方程模型檢驗本研究所提出之模型與資料的適配度，並將生理性別與疼痛診斷機制分組進行多群組路徑分析，探討路徑模型在不同患者族群上的效果是否具有差異。
研究結果：路徑分析結果顯示，(1) 全樣本之家庭性別刻板印象能正向預測性別社會傷害，性別社會傷害能正向預測疼痛認知，且性別社會傷害能完全中介家庭性別刻板印象至疼痛認知之關係 ; 性別社會傷害能負向預測生理、心理與社會生活品質，疼痛認知則能正向預測疼痛強度，並負向預測生理、心理與環境生活品質 ; 疼痛認知能完全中介家庭性別刻板印象經性別社會傷害至疼痛強度與環境生活品質之關係，並部分中介家庭性別刻板印象經性別社會傷害至生理生活品質與心理生活品質之關係。(2) 在女性組上，性別社會傷害能完全中介家庭性別刻板印象至疼痛認知之關係 ; 性別社會傷害能夠負向預測生理與心理生活品質，疼痛認知則能正向預測疼痛強度並負向預測生理、心理與環境生活品質 ; 疼痛認知能完全中介家庭性別刻板印象經性別社會傷害至疼痛強度與環境生活品質之關係，部分中介家庭性別刻板印象經性別社會傷害至生理與心理生活品質之關係。(3) 在男性組上，
性別社會傷害能完全中介家庭性別刻板印象至疼痛認知之關係，但性別社會傷害僅能負向預測社會生活品質，且疼痛認知對於各疼痛適應結果指標皆無顯著預測力。 (4) 在傷害可塑性疼痛組上，性別社會傷害能完全中介家庭性別刻板印象至疼痛認知之關係，性別社會傷害能負向預測生理與心理生活品質，疼痛認知亦能負向預測生理生活品質，且疼痛認知能部分中介性別社會傷害至生理生活品質之關係。 (5) 在非傷害可塑性疼痛組上，性別社會傷害僅能正向預測疼痛認知，對各疼痛適應指標皆無顯著預測力，疼痛認知則能正向預測疼痛強度、負向預測生理與心理生活品質。
討論與結論：家庭性別刻板印象會經由增加性別社會傷害，增加患者的負面疼痛認知，且性別社會傷害可直接或透過負面疼痛認知間接影響疼痛強度與生活品質，反映較為傳統僵化的性別刻板印象可能使患者在面對疼痛時容易遭遇獨特的性別社會傷害，此類社會性傷害不僅會影響其對於疼痛的主觀認知，更對於其生活品質有直接的負向影響，顯示臨床上留意患者在其社會性別框架下的負向人際互動，對於其如何看待疼痛及整體生活適應之重要性。此外，性別社會傷害在女性組與傷害可塑性疼痛組上，對於患者的疼痛適應結果有更為直接且廣泛的影響，顯示在尋找生理病因之外，評估社會層面之風險因子可能為照顧女性傷害可塑性疼痛患者時，尤為重要的一環。未來研究若能針對家庭性別刻板印象與性別社會傷害建立更具完善信、效度的量測工具，以及拓展收案場域至不同醫療院區與社區，並延長收案時間進行縱貫性分析，或許能對社會性別框架與相關社會性傷害在不同患者特徵與疼痛發展脈絡上所扮演的角色能有更進一步之理解，有助於臨床上標定出社會性別相關風險因子，促進更具性別敏感度之照顧。

Background: Pain, as an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience, poses comprehensive challenges to patients' physical, psychological, and social adaptation when it becomes chronic, with pain cognition playing an important role in this process. Numerous studies indicate that women are at higher risk of experiencing chronic pain than men, tend to hold more negative pain cognitions, and more frequently report associations between their pain and social injury embedded in their gender role stereotypes. This suggests that identifying the possible social context underlying gender differences in pain may be a first step toward promoting gender-sensitive clinical care. Based on clinical observation and literature review on the sociocultural context of chronic pain patients in Taiwan, this study proposed that gender related social injury and domestic gender stereotype are factors that may influence patients' pain cognition. A path model is proposed and examined through a clinical cross-sectional study to explore the relationships among these three constructs and their effects on pain adaptation outcomes, in order to clarify the roles that gender and related social injury play in patients' pain experiences. Methods: 113 chronic pain patients (31 males and 82 females) were recruited from the pain clinic of a medical center in northern Taiwan. Measuring instruments included the Gender related Social Injury Scale, the Domestic Gender Stereotype Scale, the Chronic Pain Cognition Scale, the Numeric Pain Rating Scale, and the Taiwanese Brief version of the WHO Quality of Life Questionnaire (WHOQOL-BREF Taiwan version). Structural equation modeling was used to examine the fitness between the proposed model and the data, and multi-group path analysis were conducted by grouping patients according to their sex and pain diagnosis, to further examine whether the path model differed across patient subgroups. Results: Path analysis results showed that: (1) In the full sample, domestic gender stereotype positively predicted gender related social injury, and gender related social injury positively predicted pain cognition, with gender related social injury fully mediating the relationship between domestic gender stereotype and pain cognition. gender related social injury negatively predicted physical, psychological, and social quality of life, while pain cognition positively predicted pain intensity and negatively predicted physical, psychological, and environmental quality of life. Pain cognition fully mediated the pathway from domestic gender stereotype through gender related social injury to pain intensity and environmental quality of life, and partially mediated the pathway from domestic gender stereotype through gender related social injury to physical and psychological quality of life. (2) In the female subgroup, gender related social injury fully mediated the relationship between domestic gender stereotype and pain cognition; gender related social injury negatively predicted physical and psychological quality of life, while pain cognition positively predicted pain intensity and negatively predicted physical, psychological, and environmental quality of life. Pain cognition fully mediated the pathway from domestic gender stereotype through gender related social injury to pain intensity and environmental quality of life, and partially mediated the pathway to physical and psychological quality of life. (3) In the male subgroup, gender related social injury fully mediated the relationship between domestic gender stereotype and pain cognition, but gender related social injury only negatively predicted social quality of life, while pain cognition showed no significant predictive effect on any pain adaptation outcome. (4) In the nociplastic pain subgroup, gender related social injury fully mediated the relationship between domestic gender stereotype and pain cognition; gender related social injury negatively predicted physical and psychological quality of life; pain cognition also negatively predicted physical quality of life, and pain cognition partially mediated the pathway from gender related social injury to physical quality of life. (5) In the non-nociplastic pain subgroup, gender related social injury only positively predicted pain cognition, with no significant predictive effect on any pain adaptation outcome, while pain cognition positively predicted pain intensity and negatively predicted physical and psychological quality of life. Discussion and conclusions: This study found that domestic gender stereotype amplifies patients' negative pain cognition by increasing gender related social injury, and gender related social injury can influence pain intensity and quality of life directly or indirectly through negative pain cognition. This reflects that traditional and rigid gender stereotypes may make patients more susceptible to gender related social injury when facing pain. Such social injuries not only affect patients' pain cognition but also have a direct negative impact on their quality of life, highlighting the clinical importance of attending to patients' negative interpersonal interactions within their social gender framework, both for how they perceive pain and for their overall life adaptation. Furthermore, gender related social injury exerted a more direct and extensive influence on pain adaptation outcomes in the female subgroup and the nociplastic pain subgroup, suggesting that beyond identifying physiological etiologies, assessing psycho-social level risk factors may be particularly important when caring for female patients with nociplastic pain. Future research that develops more reliable and valid measurement tools for domestic gender stereotype and gender related social injury, expands recruitment to different healthcare settings and communities, and extends the data collection period to enable longitudinal analysis, may further advance understanding of the roles that gender frameworks and related social injuries play across different patient characteristics and pain development contexts—thereby helping clinicians identify genderrelated risk factors and promote more gender-sensitive care.

王志中、林宏榮、陳宗鷹、簡志誠、余⿈平、⽥宇峯、王鈺冧、褚錦承、⾼霈馨、朱麗鈴、邱仲慶、王英偉、鄭紹宇、⽥⾬⽣、葉春長、陳綉琴、陳貞吟、許銘仁、蘇意真、柯雅婷，（2023）。非癌慢性疼痛照護衛教⼿冊（民眾版）。臺北市：衛⽣福利部 食品藥物管理署。
陳祺，（2025）。慢性疼痛病人的社會性傷害之初探。臺灣博碩士論文知識加值系統。https://hdl.handle.net/11296/5rk895。
姚開屏，（2001）。台灣簡明版世界衛生組織生活品質問卷之發展及使用手冊。台北： 世界衛生組織生活品質問卷台灣版問卷發展小組。
Applegate, K. L., Keefe, F. J., Siegler, I. C., Bradley, L. A., McKee, D. C., Cooper, K. S., & Riordan, P. (2005). Does personality at college entry predict number of reported pain conditions at mid-life? A longitudinal study. The journal of pain, 6(2), 92–97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpain.2004.11.001
Arman, M., Gebhardt, A., Hök Nordberg, J., & Andermo, S. (2020). Women's Lived Experiences of Chronic Pain: Faces of Gendered Suffering. Qualitative health research, 30(5), 772–782. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732319888478
Ashar, Y. K., Gordon, A., Schubiner, H., Uipi, C., Knight, K., Anderson, Z., Carlisle, J., Polisky, L., Geuter, S., Flood, T. F., Kragel, P. A., Dimidjian, S., Lumley, M. A., & Wager, T. D. (2022). Effect of Pain Reprocessing Therapy vs Placebo and Usual Care for Patients With Chronic Back Pain: A Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA psychiatry, 79(1), 13–23. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2021.2669
Alabas, O. A., Tashani, O. A., Tabasam, G., & Johnson, M. I. (2012). Gender role affects experimental pain responses: a systematic review with meta-analysis. European journal of pain (London, England), 16(9), 1211–1223. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1532-2149.2012.00121.x
Bem, S. L. (1981). Gender schema theory: A cognitive account of sex typing. Psychological Review, 88(4), 354–364. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.88.4.354
Bussey, K., & Bandura, A. (1999). Social cognitive theory of gender development and differentiation. Psychological review, 106(4), 676–713. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295x.106.4.676
Bartley, E. J., & Fillingim, R. B. (2016). Chapter 4 Sex Differences in Pain and Stress. Al'Absi, M., & Flaten, M. A. The Neuroscience of Pain, Stress, and Emotion: Psychological and Clinical Implications (pp. 77-95).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-800538-5.00004-2
Briones-Vozmediano, E., Vives-Cases, C., & Goicolea, I. (2016). "I'm not the woman I was":
Women's perceptions of the effects of fibromyalgia on private life. Health care for women international, 37(8), 836–854. https://doi.org/10.1080/07399332.2016.1178265
Bimpong, K., Thomson, K., Mcnamara, C. L., Balaj, M., Akhter, N., Bambra, C., & Todd, A. (2022). The Gender Pain Gap: gender inequalities in pain across 19 European countries. Scandinavian journal of public health, 50(2), 287–294. https://doi.org/10.1177/1403494820987466
Boerner, K. E., Chambers, C. T., Gahagan, J., Keogh, E., Fillingim, R. B., & Mogil, J. S. (2018). Conceptual complexity of gender and its relevance to pain. Pain, 159(11), 2137–2141. https://doi.org/10.1097/j.pain.0000000000001275
Breivik, H., Collett, B., Ventafridda, V., Cohen, R., & Gallacher, D. (2006). Survey of chronic pain in Europe: prevalence, impact on daily life, and treatment. European journal of pain (London, England), 10(4), 287–333. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpain.2005.06.009
Butler, R. K., & Finn, D. P. (2009). Stress-induced analgesia. Progress in neurobiology, 88(3), 184–202. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pneurobio.2009.04.003
Cortina, J. M. (1993). What is coefficient alpha? An examination of theory and applications. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78(1), 98–104. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.78.1.98
Clark, L. A., & Watson, D. (1995). Constructing validity: Basic issues in objective scale development. Psychological Assessment, 7(3), 309–319. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.7.3.309
Craig, K. D. (2009). The social communication model of pain. Canadian Psychology / Psychologie canadienne, 50(1), 22–32. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0014772
Che, X., Cash, R., Ng, S. K., Fitzgerald, P., & Fitzgibbon, B. M. (2018). A Systematic Review of the Processes Underlying the Main and the Buffering Effect of Social Support on the Experience of Pain. The Clinical journal of pain, 34(11), 1061–1076. https://doi.org/10.1097/AJP.0000000000000624
Costello, AB & Osborne, Jason. (2005). Best Practices in Exploratory Factor Analysis: Four Recommendations for Getting the Most From Your Analysis. Practical Assessment, Research & Evaluation. 10. 1-9.
Cohen, S. P., Vase, L., & Hooten, W. M. (2021). Chronic pain: an update on burden, best practices, and new advances. Lancet (London, England), 397(10289), 2082–2097. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(21)00393-7
Johnson, J.L., (1991). Learning to live again: the process of adjustment following a heart attack. Morse, J.M., & Johnson, J.L. (Eds.) The Illness Experience: Dimensions of Suffering. Sage Publ., Newbury Park, pp. 13-87.
Jensen, I., Nygren, Å., Gamberale, F., Goldic, I., & Westerholm, P. (1994). Coping with long-term musculoskeletal pain and its consequences: Is gender a factor? Pain, 57(2), 167–172. https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-3959(93)E0197-8
Daheim, J., Kim, S. Y., Neduvelil, A., & Nguyen, N. P. (2020). Men, Chronic Pain, and Prescription Pain Medication Use: The Role of Gender Role Beliefs in a Longitudinal Moderated Mediation Model. Pain medicine (Malden, Mass.), 21(12), 3603–3614. https://doi.org/10.1093/pm/pnz200
Derbyshire, S. W., Nichols, T. E., Firestone, L., Townsend, D. W., & Jones, A. K. (2002). Gender differences in patterns of cerebral activation during equal experience of painful laser stimulation. The journal of pain, 3(5), 401–411. https://doi.org/10.1054/jpai.2002.126788
Eisenberger, N. I., & Lieberman, M. D. (2004). Why Rejection Hurts: A Common Neural Alarm System for Physical and Social Pain. Trends in cognitive sciences, 8, 294-300. 10.1016/j.tics.2004.05.010.
Edwards, R. R., Dworkin, R. H., Sullivan, M. D., Turk, D. C., & Wasan, A. D. (2016). The Role of Psychosocial Processes in the Development and Maintenance of Chronic Pain. The journal of pain, 17(9 Suppl), T70–T92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpain.2016.01.001
Fearon, I., McGrath, J. P., & Achat, H. (1996). 'Booboos': the study of everyday pain among young children. Pain, 68(1), 55–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0304-3959(96)03200-9
Fillingim, R. B., King, C. D., Ribeiro-Dasilva, M. C., Rahim-Williams, B., & Riley, J. L., 3rd (2009). Sex, gender, and pain: a review of recent clinical and experimental findings. The journal of pain, 10(5), 447–485. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpain.2008.12.001
Fitzcharles, M.-A., Cohen, S. P., Clauw, D. J., Littlejohn, G., Usui, C., & Häuser, W. (2021). Nociplastic pain: towards an understanding of prevalent pain conditions. The Lancet, 397(10289), 2098-2110. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(21)00392-5
George, Darren & Mallery, Paul. (2003). SPSS for Windows Step-by-Step: A Simple Guide and Reference, 14.0 update (7th Edition). http://lst-iiep.iiep-unesco.org/cgi-bin/wwwi32.exe/[in=epidoc1.in]/?t2000=026564/(100).
Gatchel R. J. (2004). Comorbidity of chronic pain and mental health disorders: the biopsychosocial perspective. The American psychologist, 59(8), 795–805. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.59.8.795
Guo, H. R., Chang, Y. C., Yeh, W. Y., Chen, C. W., & Guo, Y. L. (2004). Prevalence of musculoskeletal disorder among workers in Taiwan: a nationwide study. Journal of occupational health, 46(1), 26–36. https://doi.org/10.1539/joh.46.26
García-Cueto, E., Rodríguez-Díaz, F. J., Bringas-Molleda, C., López-Cepero, J., Paíno-Quesada, S., & Rodríguez-Franco, L. (2015). Development of the Gender Role Attitudes Scale (GRAS) amongst young Spanish people. International journal of clinical and health psychology : IJCHP, 15(1), 61–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijchp.2014.10.004
Harrington, A. G., Overall, N. C., & Maxwell, J. A. (2022). Feminine Gender Role Discrepancy Strain and Women's Self-Esteem in Daily and Weekly Life: A Person x Context Perspective. Sex roles, 87(1-2), 35–51. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-022-01305-1
Keefe, F. J., Lefebvre, J. C., Egert, J. R., Affleck, G., Sullivan, M. J., & Caldwell, D. S. (2000). The relationship of gender to pain, pain behavior, and disability in osteoarthritis patients: the role of catastrophizing. Pain, 87(3), 325–334. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0304-3959(00)00296-7
Keogh, E., Hamid, R., Hamid, S., & Ellery, D. (2004). Investigating the effect of anxiety sensitivity, gender and negative interpretative bias on the perception of chest pain. Pain, 111(1-2), 209–217. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pain.2004.06.017
Kline, R. B. (2016). Principles and Practice of Structural Equation Modeling (4th ed.). New York, NY: The Guilford Press.
Keogh E. (2022). Sex and gender differences in pain: past, present, and future. Pain, 163 (Suppl 1), S108–S116. https://doi.org/10.1097/j.pain.0000000000002738
Keogh E. (2025). Sex, gender, and pain: Evidence and knowledge gaps. Current opinion in psychology, 63, 102006. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2025.102006
Kendall, N. A. S., Linton, S. J., & Main, C. J. (1997). Guide to assessing psychosocial yellow flags in acute low back pain: Risk factors for long-term disability and work loss. Wellington, New Zealand: Accident Rehabilitation and Compensation Insurance Corporation of New Zealand and the National Health Committee.
Kroska E. B. (2016). A meta-analysis of fear-avoidance and pain intensity: The paradox of chronic pain. Scandinavian journal of pain, 13, 43–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sjpain.2016.06.011
Lindsey, L.L. (2015). Gender Roles: A Sociological Perspective (6th ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315664095
Lamé, I. E., Peters, M. L., Vlaeyen, J. W., Kleef, M.v, & Patijn, J. (2005). Quality of life in chronic pain is more associated with beliefs about pain, than with pain intensity. European journal of pain (London, England), 9(1), 15–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpain.2004.02.006
Landa, A., Peterson, B. S., & Fallon, B. A. (2012). Somatoform pain: a developmental theory and translational research review. Psychosomatic Medicine, 74(7), 717-727.
Lu, Y. M., Chen, C. H., & Lue, Y. J. (2022). A cross-sectional study of disability and quality of life in patients with low back pain: Focus on sex and gender. Journal of back and musculoskeletal rehabilitation, 35(1), 177–184. https://doi.org/10.3233/BMR-200319
Melzack, R., & Wall, P. D. (1965). Pain mechanisms: a new theory. Science (New York, N.Y.), 150(3699), 971–979. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.150.3699.971
Mills, S. E. E., Nicolson, K. P., & Smith, B. H. (2019). Chronic pain: a review of its epidemiology and associated factors in population-based studies. British journal of anaesthesia, 123(2), e273–e283. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bja.2019.03.023
Montesó-Curto, P., Toussaint, L., Kueny, A., Ruschak, I., Lunn, S., Rosselló, L., Campoy, C., Clark, S., Luedtke, C., Gonçalves, A. Q., Aguilar Martín, C., Vincent, A., & Mohabbat, A. B. (2024). Emotional experiences and gender roles of men with fibromyalgia syndrome: A cross-cultural qualitative study. Frontiers in Medicine, 11, 1286729. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmed.2024.1286729
Peat, G., Thomas, E., Handy, J., & Croft, P. (2004). Social networks and pain interference with daily activities in middle and old age. Pain, 112(3), 397–405. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pain.2004.09.029
Peiró, A. M., Carracedo, P., Agulló, L., & Bernardes, S. F. (2024). Gendered dimension of chronic pain patients with low and middle income: A text mining analysis. PloS one, 19(12), e0311292. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0311292
Paxman, C. G. (2019). "Everyone thinks I am just lazy": Legitimacy narratives of Americans suffering from fibromyalgia. Health, 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1177/1363459319857457
Robinson, M. E., Riley, J. L., 3rd, Myers, C. D., Papas, R. K., Wise, E. A., Waxenberg, L. B., & Fillingim, R. B. (2001). Gender role expectations of pain: relationship to sex differences in pain. The journal of pain, 2(5), 251–257. https://doi.org/10.1054/jpai.2001.24551
Riley, J. L., 3rd, Robinson, M. E., Wise, E. A., & Price, D. (1999). A meta-analytic review of pain perception across the menstrual cycle. Pain, 81(3), 225–235. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0304-3959(98)00258-9
Riva, P., Wesselmann, E. D., Wirth, J. H., Carter-Sowell, A. R., & Williams, K. D. (2014). When Pain Does Not Heal: The Common Antecedents and Consequences of Chronic Social and Physical Pain. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 36(4), 329–346. https://doi.org/10.1080/01973533.2014.917975
Riskowski J. L. (2014). Associations of socioeconomic position and pain prevalence in the United States: findings from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Pain medicine (Malden, Mass.), 15(9), 1508–1521. https://doi.org/10.1111/pme.12528
Ruda, M. A.. (1993). Gender and pain. Pain, 53(1), 1-2. https://journals.lww.com/pain/citation/1993/04000/gender_and_pain.1.aspx
Savedra, M., Gibbons, P., Tesler, M., Ward, J., & Wegner, C. (1982). How do children describe pain? A tentative assessment. Pain, 14(2), 95–104. https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-3959(82)90091-4
Sanford, S. D., Kersh, B. C., Thorn, B. E., Rich, M. A., & Ward, L. C. (2002). Psychosocial mediators of sex differences in pain responsivity. The journal of pain, 3(1), 58–64. https://doi.org/10.1054/jpai.2002.xb30066
Samwel, H. J., Evers, A. W., Crul, B. J., & Kraaimaat, F. W. (2006). The role of helplessness, fear of pain, and passive pain-coping in chronic pain patients. The Clinical journal of pain, 22(3), 245–251. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.ajp.0000173019.72365.f5
Schiebinger, L., & Schraudner, M. (2011). Interdisciplinary Approaches to Achieving Gendered Innovations in Science, Medicine, and Engineering. Interdisciplinary Science Reviews. 36(2). 154-167. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1179/030801811X13013181961518
Stroud, L. R., Salovey, P., & Epel, E. S. (2002). Sex differences in stress responses: social rejection versus achievement stress. Biological psychiatry, 52(4), 318–327. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0006-3223(02)01333-1
Samulowitz, A., Gremyr, I., Eriksson, E., & Hensing, G. (2018). "Brave men" and "emotional women": A theory-guided literature review on gender bias in health care and gendered norms towards patients with chronic pain. Pain Research and Management, 2018, Article 6358624. https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/6358624
Sepehrinia, M., Farahani, H., Watson, P., & Amini, N. (2024). Psychometric properties and item response theory analysis of the Persian version of the social pain questionnaire. Frontiers in psychology, 15, 1372229. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1372229
Taddio, A., Goldbach, M., Ipp, M., Stevens, B., & Koren, G. (1995). Effect of neonatal circumcision on pain responses during vaccination in boys. Lancet (London, England), 345(8945), 291–292. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(95)90278-3
Trudeau, K. J., Danoff-Burg, S., Revenson, T. A., & Paget, S. A. (2003). Agency and communion in people with rheumatoid arthritis. Sex Roles, 49(5–6), 303–311.
Tsang, A., Von Korff, M., Lee, S., Alonso, J., Karam, E., Angermeyer, M. C., Borges, G. L., Bromet, E. J., Demytteneare, K., de Girolamo, G., de Graaf, R., Gureje, O., Lepine, J. P., Haro, J. M., Levinson, D., Oakley Browne, M. A., Posada-Villa, J., Seedat, S., & Watanabe, M. (2008). Common chronic pain conditions in developed and developing countries: gender and age differences and comorbidity with depression-anxiety disorders. The journal of pain, 9(10), 883–891. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpain.2008.05.005
Turk, D. C., & Okifuji, A. (2002). Psychological factors in chronic pain: evolution and revolution. Journal of consulting and clinical psychology, 70(3), 678–690. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-006x.70.3.678
Unruh A. M. (1996). Gender variations in clinical pain experience. Pain, 65(2-3), 123–167. https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-3959(95)00214-6
Unruh, A. M., Ritchie, J., & Merskey, H. (1999). Does gender affect appraisal of pain and pain coping strategies?. The Clinical journal of pain, 15(1), 31–40. https://doi.org/10.1097/00002508-199903000-00006
van Aken, M. A. W., Oosterman, J. M., van Rijn, C. M., Ferdek, M. A., Ruigt, G. S. F., Peeters, B. W. M. M., Braat, D. D. M., & Nap, A. W. (2017). Pain cognition versus pain intensity in patients with endometriosis: toward personalized treatment. Fertility and sterility, 108(4), 679–686. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fertnstert.2017.07.016
Vlaeyen, J. W. S., & Linton, S. J. (2000). Fear-avoidance and its consequences in chronic musculoskeletal pain: a state of the art. Pain, 85(3), 317–332. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0304-3959(99)00242-0
Wijnhoven, H. A., de Vet, H. C., & Picavet, H. S. (2007). Sex differences in consequences of musculoskeletal pain. Spine, 32(12), 1360–1367. https://doi.org/10.1097/BRS.0b013e31805931fd
West, S. G., Taylor, A. B., & Wu, W. (2012). Model fit and model selection in structural equation modeling. In R. H. Hoyle (Ed.), Handbook of structural equation modeling (pp. 209–231). The Guilford Press.
Wu, C. H., Chou, W. H., Long, Y. H., Yang, H. H., Lin, T., Yang, C. C., Sun, W. Z., Chen, C. C., & Lin, C. P. (2023). Development of the Chronic Pain Cognition Scale: A Culture-Sensitive Pain Measurement in Chinese. Journal of pain research, 16, 3075–3084. https://doi.org/10.2147/JPR.S422197
Wu, C.-H., Chen, C., Huang, P.-C., Yang, C.-C., Sun, W.-Z., & Lin, C.-P. (under review). Social Injury in Chronic Pain: A Qualitative Framework Analysis of Negative Social Interactions in Patients with Nociplastic and Non-Nociplastic Mechanisms.
Yunus M. B. (2001). The role of gender in fibromyalgia syndrome. Current rheumatology reports, 3(2), 128–134. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11926-001-0008-3
Yao G, Chung CW, Yu CF, Wang JD. Development and verification of validity and reliability of the WHOQOL-BREF Taiwan version. J Formos Med Assoc. 2002 May;101(5):342-51. PMID: 12101852.