本研究以建構主義視角，比較哈瑪斯（1987–2025）與塔利班（1994–2025）如何從武裝非國家行為者演變為事實上的政權，檢視兩者各自時間範圍內的身分建構、內部政治結構，以及與外部行為者、國際規範的互動，並探討塔利班為何在2025年獲得俄羅斯、中國等國外交承認,而哈瑪斯則因國際規範限制與巴勒斯坦代表權競爭，持續處於外交孤立。
研究發現，塔利班的治理結構雖設有行政、立法、司法三個部門，形式上具備類國家型態，但實權仍高度集中，本質上維持中央集權，這使其治理身分較具正當性，也提升了獲得國際承認的可能性。哈瑪斯的政治結構同樣中央集權，但發展出政治與軍事側翼分立的形式，這種結構較適合支撐長期抗爭，而非國家建構。加上哈瑪斯長期以來作為抵抗運動的身分認同，其結構限制了追求主權與國際承認的進程。
最後，本研究以蒙特維多公約為分析框架，評估由塔利班控制的阿富汗伊斯蘭酋長國，與由哈瑪斯控制的伊斯蘭巴勒斯坦，分別在1994–2025、1987–2025的時間範圍內演變為主權實體的程度，並檢視兩者面臨的制度性挑戰。

This study adopts a constructivist perspective to compare how Hamas (1987–2025) and the Taliban (1994–2025) evolved from armed non-state actors into de facto regimes. It examines each organization's identity construction, internal political structures, and interactions with external actors and international norms over its respective time frame, asking why the Taliban gained diplomatic recognition from countries such as Russia and China in 2025, while Hamas has remained diplomatically isolated, constrained by international norms and by competition over Palestinian representation.
The Taliban's governance structure, though organized into executive, legislative, and judicial branches in a state-alike form, remains centralized in practice, with authority concentrated at the top. This has given the Taliban a more legitimate governing identity and improved its prospects for international recognition. Hamas's political structure is also centralized, but split into separate political and military wings, a form suited to sustaining a protracted struggle rather than building a state. Combined with its long-standing identity as a resistance movement, this structure has limited Hamas's pursuit of sovereignty and international recognition.
Finally, using the Montevideo Convention as an analytical framework, this study assesses the extent to which the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan, controlled by the Taliban, and Islamic Palestine, controlled by Hamas, have evolved into sovereign entities over 1994–2025 and 1987–2025 respectively, and examines the institutional challenges each faces.

Journal articles
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Books / Book Chapters
Abu-Amr, Z. (1994). Islamic fundamentalism in the West Bank and Gaza: Muslim Brotherhood and Islamic Jihad.
Bellal, A. (2020). What Are 'Armed Non-State Actors'? A Legal and Semantic Approach. In: Heffes, E., Kotlik, M., Ventura, M. (eds) International Humanitarian Law and Non-State Actors. T.M.C. Asser Press, The Hague. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6265-339-9_2
Geis, A. (2021). Recognising armed non-state actors. Manchester University Press EBooks.
Hoffman, Bruce (2006). Inside Terrorism, Revised and Expanded Edition. Columbia University Press
Mukhimer, T. (2012). Hamas rule in Gaza human rights under constraint / Tariq Mukhimer. Palgrave Pivot. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137310194
Murray, D. (2021). Non-state Armed Groups and Peace Agreements: Examining Legal Capacity and the Emergence of Customary Rules. In M. Weller, M. Retter, & A. Varga (Eds.), International Law and Peace Settlements (pp. 187–210). chapter, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Natil, I. (2015). Hamas Transformation: Opportunities and Challenges. Cambridge Scholars Publishing
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Rashid, A. (2010). Taliban: militant Islam, oil and fundamentalism in Central Asia (2nd ed..). New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
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Yesiltas, Murat, Tuncay Kardas, and SpringerLink. Non-State Armed Actors in the Middle East: Geopolitics, Ideology, and Strategy. Ed. by Murat Yesiltas and Tuncay Kardas. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2018. Web.
Legal and official documents
18 U.S.C. § 2331 (2020). https://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?req=granuleid:USC-prelim-title18-section2331&num=0&edition=prelim
Immenkamp, B. (2016). Understanding the branches of Islam: Sunni Islam (Briefing No. PE 577.963). European Parliamentary Research Service, European Parliament. https://www.europarl.europa.eu/thinktank
International Committee of the Red Cross. (1949, August 12). Geneva Convention (I) for the amelioration of the condition of the wounded and sick in armed forces in the field of August 12, 1949 (Article 3). ICRC Databases https://elearning.icrc.org/healthcareindanger-legal-framework/en/media/attachements/chapter-1/gva-conv.pdf
League of Nations. (1937). Convention for the prevention and punishment of terrorism. Geneva: League of Nations.
U.S. DRAFT CONVENTION FOR PREVENTION AND PUNISHMENT OF TERRORISM ACTS. (1972). International Legal Materials, 11(6), 1382–1387. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20691014
Uniting and Strengthening America by Providing Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism (USA PATRIOT ACT) Act of 2001, Pub. L. No. 107-56, 115 Stat. 272 (2001). https://www.congress.gov/107/plaws/publ56/PLAW-107publ56.htm
Websites
Afghanistan Analysists Network: https://www.afghanistan-analysts.org/en/category/resources/taleban-and-related-documents/
Afghanistan Analysts Network. (2012, December 20). Text of speech enunciated by Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan at a research conference in France. https://www.afghanistan-analysts.org/en/resources/taleban-and-related-documents/text-of-speech-enunciated-by-islamic-emirate-of-afghanistan-at-a-research-conference-in-france/
Cataliotti, J. (2023, January 11). UN Resolution 242 | History, Content & Facts. Study.com. https://study.com/academy/lesson/un-resolution-242-overview-facts.html
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Hamas. (2024, April 5). Press release confirming participation in the Friday of Rage for Palestine and International Jerusalem Day. Al-Moqawma. https://almoqawma.com/2024/04/05/923/
İpek, F. O. (2024). The Gulf states' approach to Taliban rule: Navigating opportunities and tensions. Gulf International Forum. https://gulfif.org/the-gulf-states-approach-to-taliban-rule-navigating-opportunities-and-tensions/
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Milman, I. (2021, November 6). Qatar: Afghanistan's gateway to the West. Global Affairs and Strategic Studies, University of Navarra. https://en.unav.edu/web/global-affairs/catar-la-puerta-de-afganistan-para-occidente
Ministry of Foreign Affairs, State of Qatar. (2025, June 24). Qatar affirms continued support for Afghan people in facing multiple challenges, assisting them to achieving peace and stability. https://mofa.gov.qa/en/qatar/latest-articles/latest-news/details/2025/06/24/qatar-affirms-continued-support-for-afghan-people-in-facing-multiple-challenges--assisting-them-to-achieving-peace-and-stability
Mujahid, Z. (2019, November 11). Response by Spokesman of Islamic Emirate regarding comments by US chief of staff. Al-Emarah. https://www.alemarahenglish.af/response-by-spokesman-of-islamic-emirate-regarding-comments-by-us-chief-of-staff/
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Slavin, B. (2025). Pragmatism shapes growing GCC engagement with the Taliban. Stimson Center. https://www.stimson.org/2025/pragmatism-shapes-growing-gcc-engagement-with-the-taliban/
The Second Intifada 2000. (2016, January 9). Anti-Defamation League. https://www.adl.org/resources/backgrounder/second-intifada-2000
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Research Reports
Afghanistan Analysts Network. (2011, July 4). The Layha: Code of conduct for the Mujahedin (Appendix 1: Code in English). https://www.afghanistan-analysts.org/wp-content/uploads/downloads/2012/10/Appendix_1_Code_in_English.pdf
Azamy, H. (2016). Afghanistan: An asset or liability for Central Asian neighbors? In A. Gussarova (Ed.), Current challenges to Central Asia and Afghanistan: Towards a better world (pp. 58–70). Central Asia Institute for Strategic Studies; Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung.
Bellal, A., Giacca, G., & Casey-Maslen, S. (2011). International law and armed non-state actors in Afghanistan. International Review of the Red Cross, 93(881), 47–79. doi:10.1017/S1816383111000051
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Following Terrorist Attack on Israel, Treasury Sanctions Hamas Operatives and Financial Facilitators. (2023, October 18). US Department of the Treasury. https://home.treasury.gov/news/press-releases/jy1816
Gaza: An “Open-Air Prison.” (2022, June 13). Human Right Watch. https://www.hrw.org/video-photos/video/2022/06/13/gaza-open-air-prison
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Gussarova, A. (Ed.). (ca. 2017). Current challenges to Central Asia and Afghanistan: Towards a better world. Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung. https://collections.fes.de/publikationen/ident/fes/13545
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Marques, E., & Rognvik, S. (2018). Non-State Armed Actors and Transitions from Conflict to Peace: Lessons from Peace Processes and Implications for Stabilisation. Emirates Diplomatic Academy Working Paper.
Mustasilta, K., Ruohomäki, O., & Salo, M. (2022). Understanding non-state armed groups: Forces for good, evil or something in-between? (FIIA Working Paper No. 128). Finnish Institute of International Affairs.
Rosset, U. (2025, March 13). Hamas' strategy to destroy Israel: From theory into practice, as seen in captured documents. The Meir Amit Intelligence and Terrorism Information Center. https://www.terrorism-info.org.il/en/hamas-strategy-to-destroy-israel-from-theory-into-practice-as-seen-in-captured-documents/
Rubin, U. (2011, December). The missile threat from Gaza: From nuisance to strategic threat (Mideast Security and Policy Studies No. 91). The Begin-Sadat Center for Strategic Studies, Bar-Ilan University.
Yamamoto, M. M. (2017). What Is Terrorism? In Terrorism Against Democracy: Based in Part on Stansfield Turner's University of Maryland Course, "Terrorism & Democracy" (pp. 1–22). Center for International & Security Studies, U. Maryland. http://www-jstor-org.proxyone.lib.nccu.edu.tw:8080/stable/resrep05041.5
News
Afghan Officials Hold Rare Talks with Taliban near Paris. (2012, December 20). France 24. https://www.france24.com/en/20121220-afghanistan-taliban-paris-talks-chantilly
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Bush Rejects Taliban Offer to Hand Bin Laden Over. (2001, October 14). The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2001/oct/14/afghanistan.terrorism5
Dugyala, R. (2019, November 10). Joint Chiefs Chair: No End to US Presence in the Middle East. Politico. https://www.politico.com/news/2019/11/10/joint-chiefs-milley-us-presence-middle-east-068696
From the archive, 1988: Hamas founder Sheikh Yassin interviewed. (2023, October 10). The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/oct/10/from-the-archive-1988-hamas-founder-sheikh-yassin-interviewed (Original work published 1988)
Iran’s President-Elect Reaffirms Support for Hamas, Houthis. (2024, July 14). Iran International. https://www.iranintl.com/en/202407141999
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October 7 Crimes Against Humanity, War Crimes by Hamas-Led Groups Armed Groups Holding Hostages Should Free Them Immediately. (2024, July 17). Human Right Watch. https://www.hrw.org/news/2024/07/17/october-7-crimes-against-humanity-war-crimes-hamas-led-groups
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